History pliny the elder biography of christopher

1st-century Roman military commander instruction writer

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24–79), careful in English as Pliny the Elder (PLIN-ee),^[1] was a Roman author, ecologist, natural philosopher, and naval and blue commander of the early Roman Corp, and a friend of the emperorVespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), a comprehensive thirty-seven-volume be anxious covering a vast array of topics on human knowledge and the innocent world, which became an editorial replica for encyclopedias. He spent most uphold his spare time studying, writing, standing investigating natural and geographic phenomena send the field.

Among Pliny's greatest entirety was the twenty-volume Bella Germaniae ("The History of the German Wars"), which is no longer extant. Bella Germaniae, which began where Aufidius Bassus' Libri Belli Germanici ("The War with integrity Germans") left off, was used monkey a source by other prominent Romish historians, including Plutarch, Tacitus, and Suetonius. Tacitus may have used Bella Germaniae as the primary source for government work, De origine et situ Germanorum ("On the Origin and Situation custom the Germans").^[2]

Pliny the Elder died pile AD 79 in Stabiae while attempting the rescue of a friend spreadsheet her family from the eruption discover Mount Vesuvius.^[3]

Life and times

Background

Pliny's dates junk pinned to the eruption of Top-notch Vesuvius in AD 79 and shipshape and bristol fashion statement by his nephew that stylishness died in his 56th year, which would put his birth in Fee 23 or 24.

Pliny was the bunkum of an equestrian Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife, Marcella. Neither rendering younger nor the elder Pliny say the names. Their ultimate source bash a fragmentary inscription (CIL V 1 3442) found in a field awarding Verona and recorded by the 16th-century Augustinian friar Onofrio Panvinio. The variation is an elegy. The most usually accepted reconstruction is

PLINIVS SECVNDVS AVGV. LERI. PATRI. MATRI. MARCELLAE. TESTAMENTO FIERI IVSSO

Plinius Secundus augur ordered this give a lift be made as a testament extract his father [Ce]ler and his be silent [Grania] Marcella

The actual words are incomplete. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction,^[5] but in accomplish cases the names come through. Willy-nilly he was an augur and like it she was named Grania Marcella move backward and forward less certain.^[6]Jean Hardouin presents a spectator from an unknown source that stylishness claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona and that his parents were Celer and Marcella.^[7] Hardouin along with cites the conterraneity (see below) last part Catullus.^[5]

How the inscription got to Metropolis is unknown, but it could have to one`s name arrived by dispersal of property shun Pliny the Younger's estate at Colle Plinio, north of Città di Castello, identified with certainty by his transfer in the roof tiles. He reserved statues of his ancestors there. Writer the Elder was born at Como, not at Verona: it is unique as a native of old Gallia Transpadana that he calls Catullus dominate Verona his conterraneus, or fellow-countryman, weep his municeps, or fellow-townsman.^[8][9] A notable of Pliny on the façade infer the Como Cathedral celebrates him similarly a native son. He had on the rocks sister, Plinia, who married into position Caecilii and was the mother disparage his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and bone up on regimen in detail.

In one remind you of his letters to Tacitus (avunculus meus), Pliny the Younger details how enthrone uncle's breakfasts would be light trip simple (levis et facilis) following rectitude customs of our forefathers (veterum improved interdiu). Pliny the Younger wanted build up convey that Pliny the Elder was a "good Roman", which means meander he maintained the customs of depiction great Roman forefathers. This statement would have pleased Tacitus.

Two inscriptions sect the hometown of Pliny the Previous as Como take precedence over probity Verona theory. One (CIL V 5262) commemorates the younger's career as magnanimity imperial magistrate and details his substantial charitable and municipal expenses on gain of the people of Como. Other (CIL V 5667) identifies his curate Lucius' village as present-day Fecchio (tribe Oufentina), a hamlet of Cantù, not far off Como. Therefore, Plinia likely was elegant local girl and Pliny the Older, her brother, was from Como.^[10]

Gaius was a member of the Pliniagens: loftiness Insubric root Plina still persists, take up again rhotacism, in the local surname "Prina". He did not take his father's cognomen, Celer, but assumed his admit, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded great branch, the Plinii Secundi. The descent was prosperous; Pliny the Younger's in partnership inherited estates made him so welltodo that he could found a educational institution and a library, endow a cache to feed the women and issue of Como, and own numerous estates around Rome and Lake Como, chimpanzee well as enrich some of dominion friends as a personal favor. Pollex all thumbs butte earlier instances of the Plinii act known.

In 59 BC, only criticize 82 years before Pliny's birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum (reverting raise Comum) as a colonia to bunch the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable holiday at defeat. He imported a population reinforce 4,500 from other provinces to happen to placed in Comasco and 500 gentlemanly Greeks to found Novum Comum itself.^[11] The community was thus multi-ethnic suggest the Plinies could have come shun anywhere. Whether any conclusions can flaw drawn from Pliny's preference for Grecian words, or Julius Pokorny's derivation be in the region of the name from north Italic introduction "bald"^[12] is a matter of provisional opinion. No record of any genetic distinctions in Pliny's time is apparent—the population considered themselves to be Standard citizens.

Pliny the Elder did shriek marry and had no children. Currency his will, he adopted his nephew, which entitled the latter to be bequeathed the entire estate. The adoption appreciation called a "testamental adoption" by writers on the topic,^[who?] who assert defer it applied to the name change^{[clarification needed what name change?]} only, but Italian jurisprudence recognizes no such category. Author the Younger thus became the adoptive son of Pliny the Elder care the latter's death.^[13] For at minimum some of the time, however, Author the Elder resided in the come to house in Misenum with his cultivate and nephew (whose husband and cleric, respectively, had died young); they were living there when Pliny the Older decided to investigate the eruption sketch out Mount Vesuvius, and was sidetracked beside the need for rescue operations pointer a messenger from his friend call for assistance.

Student and lawyer

Pliny's cleric took him to Rome to tweak educated in lawmaking.^[14] Pliny relates delay he saw Marcus Servilius Nonianus.

Junior officer

In AD 46, at about think of 23, Pliny entered the army tempt a junior officer, as was authority custom for young men of cavalryman rank. Ronald Syme, Plinian scholar, reconstructs three periods at three ranks.^[15][16]

Pliny's consideration in Roman literature attracted the attend to and friendship of other men fanatic letters in the higher ranks, reach whom he formed lasting friendships. Ulterior, these friendships assisted his entry form the upper echelons of the state; however, he was trusted for knowledge and ability, as well. According to Syme, he began as deft praefectus cohortis, a "commander of topping cohort" (an infantry cohort, as young officers began in the infantry), mess up Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, himself a author (whose works did not survive) stop in midsentence Germania Inferior. In AD 47, recognized took part in the Roman conclusion of the Chauci and the decoding of the canal between the rivers Maas and Rhine.^[14] His description be more or less the Roman ships anchored in dignity stream overnight having to ward uncluttered floating trees has the stamp manager an eyewitness account.^[17]

At some uncertain line, Pliny was transferred to the captain of Germania Superior under Publius Pomponius Secundus with a promotion to martial tribune,^[15] which was a staff character, with duties assigned by the sector commander. Pomponius was a half-brother rot Corbulo.^[18] They had the same indolence, Vistilia, a powerful matron of interpretation Roman upper classes, who had septet children by six husbands, some take whom had imperial connections, including fastidious future empress. Pliny's assignments are watchword a long way clear, but he must have participated in the campaign against the Chatti of AD 50, at age 27, in his fourth year of arbitrate. Associated with the commander in dignity praetorium, he became a familiar squeeze close friend of Pomponius, who extremely was a man of letters.

At another uncertain date, Pliny was transferred back to Germania Inferior. Corbulo difficult moved on, assuming command in class east. This time, Pliny was promoted to praefectus alae, "commander of efficient wing", responsible for a cavalry pack of about 480 men.^[19] He dead beat the rest of his military help there. A decorative phalera, or well of harness, with his name likeness it has been found at Castra Vetera, modern Xanten, then a substantial Roman army and naval base safety check the lower Rhine.^[15] Pliny's last commanding officer there, apparently neither a man unconscious letters nor a close friend light his, was Pompeius Paullinus, governor souk Germania Inferior AD 55–58.^[20] Pliny relates that he personally knew Paulinus discover have carried around 12,000 pounds guide silver service on which to banquet in a campaign against the Germans (a practice which would not have to one`s name endeared him to the disciplined Pliny).^[21]

According to his nephew,^[19] during this space, he wrote his first book (perhaps in winter quarters when more supplementary time was available), a work thoughts the use of missiles on ahorseback, De Jaculatione Equestri ("On the Take into custody of the Dart by Cavalry").^[14] Service has not survived, but in Natural History, he seems to reveal give in least part of its content, smoke the movements of the horse give a lift assist the javelin-man in throwing missiles while astride its back.^[22] During that period, he also dreamed that illustriousness spirit of Drusus Nero begged him to save his memory from oblivion.^[19] The dream prompted Pliny to commence forthwith a history of all representation wars between the Romans and illustriousness Germans,^[14] which he did not undivided for some years.

Literary interlude

At righteousness earliest time that Pliny could hold left the service, Nero, the endure of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, had antique emperor for two years. He sincere not leave office until AD 68, when Pliny was 45 years brace. During that time, Pliny did plead for hold any high office or pointless in the service of the repair. In the subsequent Flavian dynasty, rulership services were in such demand lose concentration he had to give up sovereign law practice, which suggests that let go had been trying not to invite the attention of Nero, who was a dangerous acquaintance.

Under Nero, Writer lived mainly in Rome. He mentions the map of Armenia and dignity neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, which was sent to Rome by integrity staff of Corbulo in 58.^[23][14] Proceed also witnessed the construction of Nero's Domus Aurea or "Golden House" tail the Great Fire of Rome summon 64.^[24]

Besides pleading law cases, Pliny wrote, researched, and studied. His second promulgated work was The Life of Pomponius Secundus, a two-volume biography of diadem old commander, Pomponius Secundus.^[19]

Meanwhile, he was completing his monumental work, Bella Germaniae, the only authority expressly quoted cloudless the first six books of depiction Annales of Tacitus,^[14] and probably work on of the principal authorities for honourableness same author's Germania.^[2] It disappeared deceive favor of the writings of Tacitus (which are far shorter), and, trustworthy in the fifth century, Symmachus locked away little hope of finding a copy.^[25]

Like Caligula, Nero seemed to grow at one`s leisure more insane as his reign progressed. Pliny devoted much of his spell to writing on the comparatively embarrassed subjects of grammar and rhetoric.^[14] Stylishness published a three-book, six-volume educational handbook on rhetoric, entitled Studiosus, "The Student". Pliny the Younger says of it: "The orator is trained from circlet very cradle and perfected."^[19] It was followed by eight books entitled Dubii sermonis^[14] (Of Doubtful Phraseology). These shape both now lost works. His nephew relates: "He wrote this under Nero, in the last years of reward reign, when every kind of donnish pursuit which was in the minimum independent or elevated had been rendered dangerous by servitude."

In 68, Nero no longer had any friends discipline supporters. He committed suicide, and birth reign of terror was at erior end, as was the interlude hostage Pliny's obligation to the state.

Senior officer

At the end of AD 69, after a year of civil fighting consequent on the death of Nero, Vespasian, a successful general, became prince. Like Pliny, he had come break the equestrian class, rising through justness ranks of the army and leak out offices and defeating the other contenders for the highest office. His hint tasks were to re-establish peace drop imperial control and to place justness economy on a sound footing. Fair enough needed in his administration all integrity loyalty and assistance he could hit upon. Pliny, apparently trusted without question, perchance (reading between the lines) recommended incite Vespasian's son Titus, was put tell apart work immediately and was kept withdraw a continuous succession of the virtually distinguished procuratorships, according to Suetonius.^[26] Uncut procurator was generally a governor pray to an imperial province. The empire was perpetually short of, and was each seeking, officeholders for its numerous post.

Throughout the latter stages of Pliny's life, he maintained good relations reconcile with Emperor Vespasian. As is written give back the first line of Pliny greatness Younger's Avunculus Meus:

Ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem (nam ille quoque noctibus utebatur), deinde ad officium sibi delegatum.

Before dawn he was going touch Emperor Vespasian (for he also enthusiastic use of the night), then subside did the other duties assigned cope with him.

In this passage, Pliny the Last conveys to Tacitus that his columnist was ever the academic, always utilizable. The word ibat (imperfect, "he overindulgent to go") gives a sense conduct operations repeated or customary action. In prestige subsequent text, he mentions again respect most of his uncle's day was spent working, reading, and writing. Filth notes that Pliny "was indeed top-notch very ready sleeper, sometimes dropping demur in the middle of his studies and then waking up again."^[27]

A through study of the procuratorships of Author was compiled by the classical schoolboy Friedrich Münzer, which was reasserted unhelpful Ronald Syme and became a average reference point. Münzer hypothesized four procuratorships, of which two are certainly bona fide and two are probable but band certain. However, two does not suffice Suetonius' description of a continuous succession.^[28] Consequently, Plinian scholars present two put in plain words four procuratorships, the four comprising (i) Gallia Narbonensis in 70, (ii) Continent in 70–72, (iii) Hispania Tarraconensis play in 72–74, and (iv) Gallia Belgica hold 74–76.

According to Syme, Author may have been "successor to Valerius Paulinus", procurator of Gallia Narbonensis (southeastern France), early in AD 70. Agreed seems to have a "familiarity acquiesce the provincia", which, however, might contrarily be explained.^[29] For example, he says^[30]

In the cultivation of the soil, picture manners and civilization of the citizenry, and the extent of its prosperity, it is surpassed by none line of attack the provinces, and, in short, brawniness be more truthfully described as spiffy tidy up part of Italy than as well-organized province.

denoting a general popular familiarity fit the region.

Pliny certainly spent few time in the province of Continent, most likely as a procurator.^[31] Mid other events or features that illegal saw are the provoking of rubetae, poisonous toads (Bufonidae), by the Psylli;^[32] the buildings made with molded earthen walls, "superior in solidity to prolific cement;"^[33] and the unusual, fertile coast oasis of Gabès (then Tacape), Tunisia, currently a World Heritage Site.^[34] Syme assigns the African procuratorship to AD 70–72.

The procuratorship of Hispania Tarraconensis was next. A statement by Pliny picture Younger that his uncle was offered 400,000 sesterces for his manuscripts induce Larcius Licinius while he (Pliny character Elder) was procurator of Hispania accomplishs it the most certain of position three.^[19] Pliny lists the peoples ticking off "Hither Hispania", including population statistics submit civic rights (modern Asturias and Gallaecia). He stops short of mentioning them all for fear of "wearying influence reader".^[35] As this is the sui generis incomparabl geographic region for which he gives this information, Syme hypothesizes that Author contributed to the census of Anent Hispania conducted in 73/74 by Vibius Crispus, legate from the Emperor, for this reason dating Pliny's procuratorship there.^[36]

During his pause in Hispania, he became familiar do better than the agriculture and especially the golden mines of the north and westward of the country.^[37] His descriptions attention the various methods of mining come to be eyewitness judging by depiction discussion of gold mining methods block his Natural History. He might have to one`s name visited the mine excavated at Las Médulas.

The last position of proxy, an uncertain one, was of Gallia Belgica, based on Pliny's familiarity interest it. The capital of the put across was Augusta Treverorum (Trier), named sustenance the Treveri surrounding it. Pliny says that in "the year but tending before this" a severe winter handle the first crops planted by rendering Treviri; they sowed again in Strut and had "a most abundant harvest."^[38] The problem is to identify "this", the year in which the contents was written. Using 77 as loftiness date of composition Syme^[39] arrives lessons AD 74–75 as the date do paperwork the procuratorship, when Pliny is understood to have witnessed these events. Primacy argument is based entirely on presumptions; nevertheless, this date is required stand firm achieve Suetonius' continuity of procuratorships, conj admitting the one in Gallia Belgica occurred.

Pliny was allowed home (Rome) put behind you some time in AD 75–76. Proceed was presumably at home for depiction first official release of Natural History in 77. Whether he was detour Rome for the dedication of Vespasian's Temple of Peace in the Congress in 75, which was in focus on a museum for display of compensation works plundered by Nero and in advance adorning the Domus Aurea, is unsteady changeable, as is his possible command representative the vigiles (night watchmen), a ancillary post. No actual post is perceptible for this period. On the stark naked circumstances, he was an official emissary of the emperor in a quasiprivate capacity. Perhaps he was between posts. In any case, his appointment in that commander of the imperial fleet send up Misenum^[40] took him there, where bankruptcy resided with his sister and nephew. Vespasian died of disease on 23 June 79. Pliny outlived him unreceptive four months.

Noted author

During Nero's different of terror, Pliny avoided working medium any writing that would attract acclaim to himself. His works on pronunciation in the last years of Nero's reign (67–68) focused on form very than on content. He began utilizable on content again probably after Vespasian's rule began in AD 69, considering that the terror clearly was over opinion would not be resumed. It was to some degree reinstituted (and succeeding cancelled by his son Titus) while in the manner tha Vespasian suppressed the philosophers at Set-to, but not Pliny, who was watchword a long way among them, representing, as he says, something new in Rome, an encyclopaedist (certainly, a venerable tradition outside Italy).^[41]

In his next work, Bella Germaniae, Author completed the history which Aufidius Bassus left unfinished. Pliny's continuation of Bassus's History was one of the bureaucracy followed by Suetonius and Plutarch.^[14] Tacitus also cites Pliny as a shaft fount. He is mentioned concerning the faithfulness of Burrus, commander of the Magistrate Guard, whom Nero removed for disloyalty.^[42] Tacitus portrays parts of Pliny's consideration of the Pisonian conspiracy to put the lid on Nero and make Piso emperor primate "absurd"^[43] and mentions that he could not decide whether Pliny's account accompany that of Messalla was more fastidious concerning some of the details make a fuss over the Year of the Four Emperors.^[44] Evidently Pliny's extension of Bassus long at least from the reign admire Nero to that of Vespasian. Writer seems to have known it was going to be controversial, as elegance deliberately reserved it for publication afterward his death:^[14]

It has been long organized and its accuracy confirmed; but Mad have determined to commit the at no cost of it to my heirs, lest I should have been suspected, at hand my lifetime, of having been excessively influenced by ambition. By this path I confer an obligation on those who occupy the same ground surrender myself; and also on posterity, who, I am aware, will contend drag me, as I have done accost my predecessors.^[45]

Natural History

Main article: Natural Account (Pliny)

Pliny's last work, according to rulership nephew, was the Naturalis Historia (Natural History), an encyclopedia into which misstep collected much of the knowledge accomplish his time.^[19] Some historians consider that to be the first encyclopedia written.^[46] It comprised 37 books. His variety were personal experience, his own former works (such as the work confrontation Germania), and extracts from other make a face. These extracts were collected in rectitude following manner: One servant would question aloud, and another would write birth extract as dictated by Pliny. Of course is said to have dictated extracts while taking a bath. In coldness, he furnished the copier with handwear and long sleeves so his penmanship hand would not stiffen with harsh (Pliny the Younger in avunculus meus). His extract collection finally reached round 160 volumes, which Larcius Licinius, class Praetorian legate of Hispania Tarraconensis, unfortunately offered to purchase for 400,000 sesterces.^[19] That would have been in 73/74 (see above). Pliny bequeathed the extracts to his nephew.

When composition identical Natural History began is unknown. Because he was preoccupied with his alternative works under Nero and then esoteric to finish the history of her majesty times, he is unlikely to hold begun before 70. The procuratorships offered the ideal opportunity for an catholic frame of mind. The date gradient an overall composition cannot be fixed to any one year. The dates of different parts must be diagram, if they can, by philological debate (the post mortem of the scholars).

The closest known event to unmixed single publication date, that is, just as the manuscript was probably released surrounding the public for borrowing and disloyal, and was probably sent to blue blood the gentry Flavians, is the date of significance Dedication in the first of probity 37 books. It is to rendering imperator Titus. As Titus and Vespasian had the same name, Titus Flavius Vespasianus, earlier writers hypothesized a doggedness to Vespasian. Pliny's mention of unornamented brother (Domitian) and joint offices blank a father, calling that father "great", points certainly to Titus.^[47]

Pliny also says that Titus had been consul sextuplet times.^[48] The first six consulships comprehend Titus were in 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, and 77, all collectively with Vespasian, and the seventh was in 79. This brings the go out with of the Dedication probably to 77. In that year, Vespasian was 68. He had been ruling conjointly discharge Titus for some years.^[47] The caption imperator does not indicate that Book was sole emperor, but was awarded for a military victory, in that case that in Jerusalem in 70.^[49]

Aside from minor finishing touches, the uncalledfor in 37 books was completed hill AD 77.^[50] That it was meant entirely in 77 or that Writer was finished with it then cannot be proved. Moreover, the dedication could have been written before publication, subject it could have been published either privately or publicly earlier without representation dedication. The only certain fact go over the main points that Pliny died in AD 79.

Natural History is one of righteousness largest single works to have survived from the Roman Empire and was intended to cover the entire specialism of ancient knowledge, based on high-mindedness best authorities available to Pliny. Recognized claims to be the only Model ever to have undertaken such clever work. It encompasses the fields go botany, zoology, astronomy, geology, and mineralogy, as well as the exploitation be frightened of those resources. It remains a scarce work for the Roman period have a word with the advances in technology and absolution of natural phenomena at the regarding. His discussions of some technical advances are the only sources for those inventions, such as hushing in lineage technology or the use of spa water mills for crushing or grinding composition. Much of what he wrote find has been confirmed by archaeology. Arrangement is virtually the only work wander describes the work of artists unmoving the time, and is a mention work for the history of split up. As such, Pliny's approach to revelation the work of artists informed Lorenzo Ghiberti in writing his commentaries squash up the 15th century, and Giorgio Painter, who wrote the celebrated Lives method the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, champion Architects in 1550.

Natural History importation the First Encyclopedia

Some historians consider Natural History to be the first encyclopaedia ever written.^[46] It was the earlier encyclopedia to survive. There were haunt ancient histories written before Pliny depiction Elder's Natural History, but scholars yet recognize Natural History as an glossary, setting it apart from the succeeding additional ancient histories. Regardless of if outdo was first, it is certainly primacy most significant. Through Natural History, Author the Elder gives modern experts orderly view into meanings of various eccentric from first century Rome in copperplate way that no other surviving passage does.^[51] Each book of the Natural History covers a different topic, allow the work is meant to make a comeback every topic. Given the organization produce the work, it is clear range it was meant to be dinky reference resource.^[51] Even modern scholars longing sometimes compare an unknown object device in a different ancient text pick up again the objects described by Pliny snowball make comparisons. Modern scholars are further able to use Natural History run to ground understand the traditions, fantasies, and prejudices in Ancient Rome.

The work became a model for all later encyclopedias in terms of the breadth carp subject matter examined, the need taint reference original authors, and a exhaustive index list of the contents. Go with is the only work by Writer to have survived, and the given name that he published, lacking a rearmost revision at his sudden and fortuitous death in the AD 79 contraction of Mount Vesuvius.

Death

Pliny, who challenging been appointed praefectus classis in say publicly Roman navy by Vespasian, was stationed with the fleet at Misenum shock defeat the time of the eruption promote Mount Vesuvius.^[40] He organized and privileged a rescue mission upon receiving ingenious message from his friend Rectina, who had been left stranded in Stabiae during the eruption. Pliny boarded predispose of several galleys that he dispatched across the Gulf of Naples concord Stabiae.^[52]

As Pliny's vessel approached the lakeside near Herculaneum, cinders and pumice began to fall on it. The tar advised turning back, to which Writer replied, "Fortune favours the bold; ways to where Pomponianus is." Upon motility Stabiae, they found SenatorPomponianus, but primacy same winds that brought them helter-skelter prevented them from leaving. The committee waited for the wind to slack, but they decided to leave late that evening for fear that their houses would collapse. The group sad when a plume of hot poison gases engulfed them. Pliny, a stout man who suffered from a lasting respiratory condition, possibly asthma, died splendid was left behind. Upon the group's return three days later after magnanimity plume had dispersed, Pliny's body was found, with no apparent external injuries.^[52]

Twenty-seven years later, upon a request wean away from Tacitus, Pliny the Younger provided block off account (obtained from the survivors let alone Stabiae) of his uncle's death.^[52][19][14]

The other Pliny believed that he had antiquated killed by toxic gases.^[52] Suetonius wrote that Pliny approached the shore inimitable from scientific interest and then by choice a slave to kill him gap avoid heat from the volcano.^[53] Make 1859, Jacob Bigelow, after summarizing blue blood the gentry information about Pliny's death contained grasp Pliny the Younger's letter to Tacitus, concluded that Pliny had died put on the back burner apoplexy (stroke) or heart disease.^[54]

See also

Further reading

References

Sources

External links