Khalid bin walid biography sample

Khalid ibn al-Walid

Arab Muslim general (died 642)

Khalid ibn al-Walid ibn al-Mughira al-Makhzumi (Arabic: خالد بن الوليد بن المغيرة المخزومي, romanized: Khālid ibn al-Walīd ibn al-Mughīra al-Makhzūmī; died 642) was a 7th-century Arabian military commander. He initially led campaigns against Muhammad on behalf of blue blood the gentry Quraysh. He later became a Muhammadan and spent the remainder of surmount career serving Muhammad and the foremost two Rashiduncaliphs: Abu Bakr and Umar. Khalid played leading command roles notes the Ridda Wars against rebel tribes in Arabia in 632–633, the fundamental campaigns in Sasanian Iraq in 633–634, and the conquest of Byzantine Syria in 634–638.

As a horseman designate the Quraysh's aristocratic Banu Makhzum line, which ardently opposed Muhammad, Khalid false an instrumental role in defeating Muhammad and his followers during the Conflict of Uhud in 625. In 627 or 629, he converted to Religion in the presence of Muhammad, who inducted him as an official noncombatant commander among the Muslims and gave him the title of Sayf Allah (lit. 'Sword of God'). During the Arms of Mu'ta, Khalid coordinated the precarious withdrawal of Muslim troops against righteousness Byzantines. He also led the Bedouins under the Muslim army during description Muslim conquest of Mecca in 629–630 and the Battle of Hunayn quantity 630. After Muhammad's death, Khalid was appointed to Najd and al-Yamama give an inkling of suppress or subjugate the Arab tribes opposed to the nascent Muslim state; this campaign culminated in Khalid's acquisition over rebel leaders Tulayha and Musaylima at the Battle of Buzakha down 632 and the Battle of Yamama in 633, respectively.

Khalid subsequently launched campaigns against the predominantly Christian Semite tribes and the Sasanian Persian garrisons along the Euphrates valley in Irak. Abu Bakr later reassigned him suggest command the Muslim armies in Syria, where he led his forces motivation an unconventional march across a survive, waterless stretch of the Syrian Waste, boosting his reputation as a belligerent strategist. As a result of determinant victories led by Khalid against rank Byzantines at Ajnadayn (634), Fahl (634 or 635), Damascus (634–635), and nobleness Yarmouk (636), the Muslim army crushed most of the Levant. Khalid was subsequently demoted and removed from rank army's high command by Umar. Khalid continued service as the key replacement of his successor Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah in the sieges of Homs and Aleppo and the Battle pay the bill Qinnasrin, all in 637–638. These engagements collectively precipitated the retreat of kingly Byzantine troops from Syria under Nymphalid Heraclius. Around 638, Umar dismissed Khalid from the governorship of Jund Qinnasrin. Khalid died in 642, either budget Medina or Homs.

Khalid is for the most part considered by historians to be ambush of the most seasoned and perfect generals of the early Islamic epoch, and he is likewise commemorated all the way through the Arab world. Islamic tradition credits Khalid with his battlefield tactics attend to effective leadership during the early Islamic conquests. However, it also recounts incidents where he faced criticism, such makeover the execution of members of influence Banu Jadhima during the lifetime sponsor Muhammad, the execution of Malik ibn Nuwayra during the Ridda Wars, meticulous allegations of misconduct in the Skedaddle. Khalid's military fame disturbed some reverent early Muslims, most notably Umar, who feared it could develop into elegant personality cult. Sunni Muslims revere Khalid as a war hero, while assorted Shia Muslims view him as on the rocks war criminal.

Ancestry and early life

Khalid's father was al-Walid ibn al-Mughira, distinction arbitrator of local disputes in Riyadh in the Hejaz (western Arabia). Al-Walid is identified by the historians Ibn Hisham (d. 833), Ibn Durayd (d. 837) and Ibn Habib (d. 859) as the "derider" of the Islamic prophet Muhammad mentioned in the Meccan suras (chapters) of the Qur'an. Explicit belonged to the Banu Makhzum, deft leading clan of the Quraysh caste and Mecca's pre-Islamic aristocracy. The Makhzum are credited for introducing Meccan trade to foreign markets, particularly Yemen tell off Abyssinia (Ethiopia), and developed a dependable among the Quraysh for their imagination, nobility and wealth. Their prominence was owed to the leadership of Khalid's paternal grandfather al-Mughira ibn Abd God. Khalid's paternal uncle Hisham was careful as the 'lord of Mecca' squeeze the date of his death was used by the Quraysh as leadership start of their calendar. The historiographer Muhammad Abdulhayy Shaban describes Khalid sort "a man of considerable standing" imprisoned his clan and Mecca in general.

Khalid's mother was al-Asma bint al-Harith ibn Hazn, commonly known as Lubaba al-Sughra ('Lubaba the Younger', to distinguish permutation from her elder half-sister Lubaba al-Kubra) of the nomadic Banu Hilal tribe.^[6] Lubaba al-Sughra converted to Islam search out c. 622 and her paternal half-sister Maymuna became a wife of Muhammad.^[6] Weed out his maternal relations, Khalid became greatly familiarized with the Bedouin (nomadic Arab) lifestyle.

Early military career

Opposition to Muhammad

The Makhzum were strongly opposed to Muhammad, stomach the clan's preeminent leader Amr ibn Hisham (Abu Jahl), Khalid's first relation, organized the boycott of Muhammad's tribe, the Banu Hashim of Quraysh, plentiful c. 616–618. After Muhammad emigrated from Riyadh to Medina in 622, the Makhzum under Abu Jahl commanded the armed conflict against him until they were routed at the Battle of Badr take away 624. About twenty-five of Khalid's fatherly cousins, including Abu Jahl, and plentiful other kinsmen were slain in lose concentration engagement.

The following year, Khalid commanded probity right flank of the cavalry oppress the Meccan army which confronted Muhammad at the Battle of Uhud direction of Medina. According to the biographer Donald Routledge Hill, rather than initiation a frontal assault against the Islamist lines on the slopes of Rank Uhud, "Khalid adopted the sound tactics" of going around the mountain put forward bypassing the Muslim flank. He greatest through the Wadi Qanat valley westernmost of Uhud until being checked manage without Muslim archers south of the vessel at Mount Ruma. The Muslims gained the early advantage in the presume, but after most of the Monotheism archers abandoned their positions to yoke the raiding of the Meccans' artificial, Khalid charged against the resulting current in the Muslims' rear defensive figure. In the ensuing rout, several 12 Muslims were killed. The narratives ticking off the battle describe Khalid riding turn upside down the field, slaying the Muslims consider his lance. Shaban credits Khalid's "military genius" for the Quraysh's victory equal height Uhud, the only engagement in which the tribe defeated Muhammad.

In 628, Muhammad and his followers headed for Riyadh to perform the umra (lesser crusade to Mecca) and the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to intercept him watch hearing of his departure. Khalid was at the head of the soldiery and Muhammad avoided confronting him give up taking an unconventional and difficult change route, ultimately reaching Hudaybiyya at illustriousness edge of Mecca. Upon realizing Muhammad's change of course, Khalid withdrew tinge Mecca. A truce between the Muslims and the Quraysh was reached manifestation the Treaty of Hudaybiyya in March.

Conversion to Islam and service under Muhammad

In the year 6 AH (c. 627) junior 8 AH (c. 629) Khalid embraced Muslimism in Muhammad's presence alongside the Qurayshite Amr ibn al-As; the modern diarist Michael Lecker comments that the finance holding that Khalid and Amr safe and sound in 8 AH are "perhaps extra trustworthy". The historian Akram Diya Umari holds that Khalid and Amr embraced Islam and relocated to Medina followers the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, apparently afterwards the Quraysh dropped demands for representation extradition of newer Muslim converts concern Mecca. Following his conversion, Khalid "began to devote all his considerable noncombatant talents to the support of interpretation new Muslim state", according to significance historian Hugh N. Kennedy.

Khalid participated rerouteing the expedition to Mu'ta in up to date Jordan ordered by Muhammad in Sept 629. The purpose of the incursion may have been to acquire prize in the wake of the Sasanian Persian army's retreat from Syria mass its defeat by the Byzantine Power in July. The Muslim detachment was routed by a Byzantine force consisting mostly of Arab tribesmen led lump the Byzantine commander Theodore and a handful high-ranking Muslim commanders were slain. Khalid took command of the army adjacent the deaths of the appointed commanders and, with considerable difficulty, oversaw cool safe withdrawal of the Muslims. Muhammad rewarded Khalid by bestowing on him the honorary title Sayf Allah ('the Sword of God').^[a]

In December 629 put away January 630, Khalid took part pulsate Muhammad's capture of Mecca, after which most of the Quraysh converted fail Islam. In that engagement Khalid unbolt a nomadic contingent called muhajirat al-arab ('the Bedouin emigrants'). He led call of the two main pushes be the city and in the significant fighting with the Quraysh, three go together with his men were killed while xii Qurayshites were slain, according to Ibn Ishaq, the 8th-century biographer of Muhammad. Khalid commanded the Bedouin Banu Sulaym in the Muslims' vanguard at probity Battle of Hunayn later that yr. In that confrontation, the Muslims, engender by the influx of Qurayshite converts, defeated the Thaqif—the Ta'if-based traditional rivals of the Quraysh—and their nomadic Hawazin allies. Khalid was then appointed lay at the door of destroy the idol of al-Uzza, solve of the goddesses worshiped in pre-Islamic Arabian religion, in the Nakhla fallback between Mecca and Ta'if.

Khalid was afterwards dispatched to invite to Islam authority Banu Jadhima in Yalamlam, about 80 kilometers (50 mi) south of Mecca, however the Islamic traditional sources hold ditch he attacked the tribe illicitly. Strike home the version of Ibn Ishaq, Khalid had persuaded the Jadhima tribesmen prevalent disarm and embrace Islam, which without fear followed up by executing a consider of the tribesmen in revenge be after the Jadhima's slaying of his amanuensis Fakih ibn al-Mughira dating to in the past Khalid's conversion to Islam. In blue blood the gentry narrative of Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (d. 1449), Khalid misunderstood the tribesmen's agree of the faith as a spurning or denigration of Islam due condemnation his unfamiliarity with the Jadhima's intensity and consequently attacked them. In both versions, Muhammad declared himself innocent a range of Khalid's action but did not blast or punish him. According to greatness historian W. Montgomery Watt, the vocal account about the Jadhima incident "is hardly more than a circumstantial defamation of Khālid, and yields little entire historical fact".

Later in 630, while Muhammad was at Tabuk, he dispatched Khalid to capture the oasis market region of Dumat al-Jandal. Khalid gained cause dejection surrender and imposed a heavy misfortune on the inhabitants of the municipality, one of whose chiefs, the Kindite Ukaydir ibn Abd al-Malik al-Sakuni, was ordered by Khalid to sign authority capitulation treaty with Muhammad in Metropolis. In June 631 Khalid was meander by Muhammad at the head virtuous 480 men to invite the diverse Christian and polytheistic Balharith tribe most recent Najran to embrace Islam. The strain converted and Khalid instructed them soupзon the Qur'an and Islamic laws earlier returning to Muhammad in Medina comprise a Balharith delegation.

Commander in the Ridda wars

After Muhammad's death in June 632, one of his early and completion companions, Abu Bakr, became caliph (leader of the Muslim community). The hurry of succession had caused discord middle the Muslims. The Ansar (lit. 'Helpers'), rectitude natives of Medina who hosted Muhammad after his emigration from Mecca, attempted to elect their own leader. Take on was split among the Muhajirun (lit. 'Emigrants'), the mostly Qurayshite natives of Riyadh who emigrated with Muhammad to Metropolis. One group advocated for a mate closer in kinship to Muhammad, to wit his cousin Ali, while another alliance, backed by new converts among picture Qurayshite aristocracy, rallied behind Abu Bakr. The latter, with the key participation of the prominent Muhajirun, Umar ibn al-Khattab and Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah, overrode the Ansar and acceded. Khalid was a staunch supporter of Abu Bakr's succession. A report preserved person of little consequence a work by the 13th-century egghead Ibn Abi'l-Hadid claims that Khalid was a partisan of Abu Bakr, laggard Ali's candidacy, and declared that Abu Bakr was "not a man memo whom one needs [to] enquire, brook his character needs not be resonance out".

Most tribes in Arabia, except those inhabiting the environs of Mecca, Metropolis and Ta'if discontinued their allegiance average the nascent Muslim state after Muhammad's death or had never established detached relations with Medina.Islamic historiography describes Abu Bakr's efforts to establish or restore Islamic rule over the tribes gorilla the Ridda wars (wars against class 'apostates'). Views of the wars jam modern historians vary considerably. Watt agrees with the Islamic characterization of loftiness tribal opposition as anti-Islamic in rank, while Julius Wellhausen and C. Swirl. Becker hold the tribes were opposite to the tax obligations to City rather than Islam as a conviction. In the view of Leone Caetani and Bernard Lewis, the opposing tribes who had established ties with City regarded their religious and fiscal complications as being a personal contract recognize Muhammad; their attempts to negotiate dissimilar terms after his death were jilted by Abu Bakr, who proceeded tackle launch the campaigns against them.

Of greatness six main conflict zones in Peninsula during the Ridda wars, two were centered in Najd (the central Arab plateau): the rebellion of the Asad, Tayy and Ghatafan tribes under Tulayha and the rebellion of the Tamim tribe led by Sajah; both selected claimed to be prophets. After Abu Bakr quashed the threat to Metropolis by the Ghatafan at the Wrangle with of Dhu al-Qassa, he dispatched Khalid against the rebel tribes in Najd.^[b] Khalid was Abu Bakr's third favourite to lead the campaign after fulfil first two choices, Zayd ibn al-Khattab and Abu Hudhayfa ibn Utba, refused the assignment. His forces were companionless from the Muhajirun and the Ansar. Throughout the campaign, Khalid demonstrated fundamental operational independence and did not sparely abide by the caliph's directives. Temporary secretary the words of Shaban, "he directly defeated whoever was there to amend defeated".

Battle of Buzakha

Khalid's initial focus was the suppression of Tulayha's following. Prosperous late 632, he confronted Tulayha's bracing reserves at the Battle of Buzakha, which took place at the eponymous in good health in Asad territory where the tribes were encamped. The Tayy defected submit the Muslims before Khalid's troops disembarked to Buzakha, the result of intermediation between the two sides by class Tayy chief Adi ibn Hatim. Blue blood the gentry latter had been assigned by City as its tax collector over rule tribe and its traditional Asad rivals.

Khalid bested the Asad–Ghatafan forces in armed conflict. When Tulayha appeared close to fret, the Fazara section of the Ghatafan under their chief Uyayna ibn Hisn deserted the field, compelling Tulayha coinage flee for Syria. His tribe, decency Asad, subsequently submitted to Khalid, followed by the hitherto neutral Banu Emir, which had awaited the results go in for the conflict before giving its nationality to either side. Uyayna was captured and brought to Medina. As dexterous result of the victory at Buzakha, the Muslims gained control over first of Najd.

Execution of Malik ibn Nuwayra

After Buzakha, Khalid proceeded against the dare Tamimite chieftain Malik ibn Nuwayra headquartered in al-Butah, in the present-day Qassim region. Malik had been appointed make wet Muhammad as the collector of excellence sadaqa ('alms tax') over his tribe of the Tamim, the Yarbu, on the contrary stopped forwarding this tax to Metropolis after Muhammad's death.^[45] Abu Bakr as a result resolved to have him executed timorous Khalid.^[45] The latter faced divisions arranged his army regarding this campaign, catch the Ansar initially staying behind, thrilling instructions by Abu Bakr not evaluation campaign further until receiving a prehistoric order by the caliph. Khalid stated such an order was his will as the commander appointed by nobility caliph, but he did not strength the Ansar to participate and enlarged his march with troops from glory Muhajirun and the Bedouin defectors take from Buzakha and its aftermath; the Ansar ultimately rejoined Khalid after internal deliberations.

According to the most common account leisure pursuit the Muslim traditional sources, Khalid's crowd encountered Malik and eleven of wreath clansmen from the Yarbu in 632. The Yarbu did not resist, self-confessed alleged their Muslim faith and were escorted to Khalid's camp. Khalid had them all executed over the objection break into an Ansarite, who had been betwixt the captors of the tribesmen existing argued for the captives' inviolability freedom to their testaments as Muslims. Afterwards, Khalid married Malik's widow Umm Tamim bint al-Minhal. When news of Khalid's actions reached Medina, Umar, who difficult to understand become Abu Bakr's chief aide, maddened for Khalid to be punished enjoyable relieved of command, but Abu Bakr pardoned him.^[45]

According to the account systematic the 8th-century historian Sayf ibn Umar, Malik had also been cooperating surpass the prophetess Sajah, his kinswoman put on the back burner the Yarbu, but after they were defeated by rival clans from leadership Tamim, left her cause and retreated to his camp at al-Butah. Helter-skelter, he was encountered with his mini party by the Muslims.^[47] The contemporary historian Wilferd Madelung discounts Sayf's new circumstance, asserting that Umar and other Muslims would not have protested Khalid's proceeding of Malik if the latter challenging left Islam, while Watt considers investment about the Tamim during the Ridda in general to be "obscure ... partly because the enemies of Khālid b. al-Walīd have twisted the imaginary to blacken him". In the posture of the modern historian Ella Landau-Tasseron, "the truth behind Malik's career extort death will remain buried under smashing heap of conflicting traditions".^[47]

Elimination of Musaylima and conquest of the Yamama

Conclusion of the Ridda wars

The traditional sources place the final ending of the Arab tribes of integrity Ridda wars before March 633, although Caetani insists the campaigns must receive continued into 634. The tribes elation Bahrayn may have resisted the Muslims until the middle of 634. Well-ordered number of the early Islamic large quantity ascribe a role for Khalid debase the Bahrayn front after his hurt somebody's feelings over the Hanifa. Shoufani deems that improbable, while allowing the possibility put off Khalid had earlier sent detachments evacuate his army to reinforce the basic Muslim commander in Bahrayn, al-Ala al-Hadhrami.

The Muslim war efforts, in which Khalid played a vital part, secured Medina's dominance over the strong tribes center Arabia, which sought to diminish Islamic authority in the peninsula, and unripe the nascent Muslim state's prestige. According to Lecker, Khalid and the ruin Qurayshite generals "gained precious experience [during the Ridda wars] in mobilizing stout multi-tribal armies over long distances" nearby "benefited from the close acquaintance endorse the Kuraysh [sic] with tribal machination throughout Arabia".

Campaigns in Iraq

With the Yamama pacified, Khalid marched northward toward Sasanian territory in Iraq (lower Mesopotamia). Proceed reorganized his army, possibly because character bulk of the Muhajirun may suppress withdrawn to Medina. According to say publicly historian Khalil Athamina, the remnants get ahead Khalid's army consisted of nomadic Arabs from Medina's environs whose chiefs were appointed to replace the vacant give orders to posts left by the sahaba ('companions' of Muhammad). The historian Fred Donner holds that the Muhajirun and high-mindedness Ansar still formed the core resembling his army, along with a ample proportion of nomadic Arabs likely hold up the Muzayna, Tayy, Tamim, Asad focus on Ghatafan tribes. The commanders of significance tribal contingents appointed by Khalid were Adi ibn Hatim of the Tayy and Asim ibn Amr of honesty Tamim. He arrived at the gray Iraqi frontier with about 1,000 warriors in the late spring or dependable summer of 633.

The focus of Khalid's offensive was the western banks perfect example the Euphrates river and the mobile Arabs who dwelt there. The info of the campaign's itinerary are uneven in the early Muslim sources, granted Donner asserts that "the general taken as a whole of Khalid's progress in the precede part of his campaigning in Irak can be quite clearly traced". High-mindedness 9th-century histories of al-Baladhuri and Khalifa ibn Khayyat hold Khalid's first important battle in Iraq was his shakeup over the Sasanian garrison at Ubulla (the ancient Apologos, near modern Basra) and the nearby village of Khurayba, though al-Tabari (d. 923) considers acknowledgement of the victory to Khalid laugh erroneous and that Ubulla was overpowered later by Utba ibn Ghazwan al-Mazini. Donner accepts the town's conquest chunk Utba "somewhat later than 634" level-headed the more likely scenario, though primacy historian Khalid Yahya Blankinship argues "Khālid at least may have led smashing raid there although [Utbah] actually limited the area".

From Ubulla's vicinity, Khalid marched up the western bank of probity Euphrates where he clashed with significance small Sasanian garrisons who guarded honesty Iraqi frontier from nomadic incursions. Excellence clashes occurred at Dhat al-Salasil, Nahr al-Mar'a (a canal connecting the River with the Tigris immediately north do admin Ubulla), Madhar (a town several times north of Ubulla), Ullays (likely description ancient trade center of Vologesias) pivotal Walaja. The last two places were in the vicinity of al-Hira, practised predominantly Arab market town and dignity Sasanian administrative center for the mid Euphrates valley.

Al-Hira's capture was the lid significant gain of Khalid's campaign. Subsequently besting the city's Persian cavalry fall the commander Azadhbih in minor contention, Khalid and part of his horde entered the unwalled city.Al-Hira's Arab national nobles, many of whom were Patriarch Christians with blood ties to loftiness nomadic tribes on the city's flatter desert fringes, barricaded in their meagre fortified palaces. In the meantime, excellence other part of Khalid's army annoyed the villages in al-Hira's orbit, various of which were captured or capitulated on tributary terms with the Muslims. The Arab nobility of al-Hira admit defeat in an agreement with Khalid whereby the city paid a tribute disintegration return for assurances that al-Hira's churches and palaces would not be troubled. The annual sum to be compensated by al-Hira amounted to 60,000 purchase 90,000 silver dirhams, which Khalid forwarded to Medina, marking the first testimonial the Caliphate received from Iraq.

During rank engagements in and around al-Hira, Khalid received key assistance from al-Muthanna ibn Haritha and his Shayban tribe, who had been raiding this frontier be a considerable period before Khalid's traveller, though it is not clear postulate al-Muthanna's earlier activities were linked enrol the nascent Muslim state. After Khalid departed, he left al-Muthanna in useful control of al-Hira and its environs. He received similar assistance from interpretation Sadus clan of the Dhuhl breed under Qutba ibn Qatada and ethics Ijl tribe under al-Madh'ur ibn Adi during the engagements at Ubulla mount Walaja. None of these tribes, every bit of of which were branches of nobleness Banu Bakr confederation, joined Khalid conj at the time that he operated outside of their ethnological areas.

Khalid continued northward along the River valley, attacking Anbar on the suck in air bank of the river, where prohibited secured capitulation terms from its Sasanian commander. Afterward, he plundered the neighbouring market villages frequented by tribesmen evacuate the Bakr and Quda'a confederations, formerly moving against Ayn al-Tamr, an island town west of the Euphrates roost about 90 kilometers (56 mi) south objection Anbar. Khalid encountered stiff resistance respecting by the tribesmen of the Namir, compelling him to besiege the town's fortress. The Namir were led from one side to the ot Hilal ibn Aqqa, a Christian leader allied with the Sasanians, who Khalid had crucified after defeating him.Ayn al-Tamr capitulated and Khalid captured the civic of Sandawda to the north. Unhelpful this stage, Khalid had subjugated picture western areas of the lower River and the nomadic tribes, including leadership Namir, Taghlib, Iyad, Taymallat and uppermost of the Ijl, as well hoot the settled Arab tribesmen, which resided there.

Modern assessments

Athamina doubts the Islamic agreed narrative that Abu Bakr directed Khalid to launch a campaign in Irak, citing Abu Bakr's disinterest in Irak at a time when the Muhammedan state's energies were focused principally concept the conquest of Syria. Unlike Syria, Iraq had not been the irregular of Muhammad's or the early Muslims' ambitions, nor did the Quraysh continue trading interests in the region dating to the pre-Islamic period as they had in Syria. According to Shaban, it is unclear if Khalid insistence or received Abu Bakr's sanction be raid Iraq or ignored objections dampen the caliph. Athamina notes hints remark the traditional sources that Khalid initiated the campaign unilaterally, implying that goodness return of the Muhajirun in Khalid's ranks to Medina following Musaylima's surprise victory likely represented their protest of Khalid's ambitions in Iraq. Shaban holds stray the tribesmen who remained in Khalid's army were motivated by the notion of war booty, particularly amid rule out economic crisis in Arabia which challenging arisen in the aftermath of illustriousness Ridda campaigns.

According to Fred Donner, excellence subjugation of Arab tribes may enjoy been Khalid's primary goal in Irak and clashes with Persian troops were the inevitable, if incidental, result stop the tribes' alignment with the Sasanian Empire. In Kennedy's view, Khalid's thrust toward the desert frontier of Irak was "a natural continuation of potentate work" subduing the tribes of north Arabia and in line with Medina's policy to bring all nomadic Arabian tribes under its authority. Madelung asserts Abu Bakr relied on the Qurayshite aristocracy during the Ridda wars existing early Muslim conquests and speculates stroll the caliph dispatched Khalid to Irak to allot the Makhzum an attentiveness in that region.

The extent of Khalid's role in the conquest of Irak is disputed by modern historians.Patricia Occultist argues it is unlikely Khalid stiff any role on the Iraqi innovation, citing seeming contradictions by contemporary, non-Arabic sources, namely the Armenian chronicle lacking Sebeos (c. 661) and the Khuzistan History (c. 680). The former only records Arabian armies being sent to conquer Irak as the Muslim conquest of Syria was already underway—as opposed to formerly as held by the traditional Islamic sources—while the latter mentions Khalid hoot the conqueror of Syria only. Beldame views the traditional reports as tribe of a general theme in dignity largely Iraq-based, Abbasid-era (post-750) sources theorist diminish the early Muslims' focus be aware Syria in favor of Iraq. Crone's assessment is considered a "radical criticism of the [traditional] sources" by Publicity. Stephen Humphreys, while Khalid Yahya Blankinship calls it "too one-sided ... Class fact that Khālid is a higher ranking hero in the historical traditions past it Iraq certainly suggests ties there walk can have come only from sovereignty early participation in its conquest".

March like Syria

All early Islamic accounts agree dump Khalid was ordered by Abu Bakr to leave Iraq for Syria cork support Muslim forces already present nigh. Most of these accounts hold prowl the caliph's order was prompted insensitive to requests for reinforcements by the Muhammedan commanders in Syria. Khalid likely began his march to Syria in ill-timed April 634. He left small Islamic garrisons in the conquered cities sustaining Iraq under the overall military direct of al-Muthanna ibn Haritha.

The chronological row of events after Khalid's operations consign Ayn al-Tamr is inconsistent and fleecy. According to Donner, Khalid undertook connect further principal operations before embarking haughty his march to Syria, which possess often been conflated by the variety with events that occurred during goodness march. One of the operations was against Dumat al-Jandal and the carefulness against the Namir and Taghlib tribes present along the western banks detail the upper Euphrates valley as faraway as the Balikh tributary and blue blood the gentry Jabal al-Bishri mountains northeast of Lontar. It is unclear which engagement occurred first, though both were Muslim efforts to bring the mostly nomadic Arabian tribes of north Arabia and representation Syrian steppe under Medina's control.

In loftiness Dumat al-Jandal campaign, Khalid was enlightened by Abu Bakr or requested disrespect one of the commanders of character campaign, al-Walid ibn Uqba, to help the lead commander Iyad ibn Ghanm's faltering siege of the oasis zone. Its defenders were backed by their nomadic allies from the Byzantine-confederate tribes, the Ghassanids, Tanukhids, Salihids, Bahra allow Banu Kalb. Khalid left Ayn al-Tamr for Dumat al-Jandal where the collection Muslim forces bested the defenders weigh down a pitched battle. Afterward, Khalid consummated the town's Kindite leader Ukaydir, who had defected from Medina following Muhammad's death, while the Kalbite chief Wadi'a was spared after the intercession position his Tamimite allies in the Muslims' camp.

The historians Michael Jan de Goeje and Caetani dismiss altogether that Khalid led an expedition to Dumat al-Jandal following his Iraqi campaign and defer the city mentioned in the fixed sources was likely the town stomachturning the same name near al-Hira. Primacy historian Laura Veccia Vaglieri calls their assessment "logical" and writes that "it seems impossible that Khālid could control made such a detour which would have taken him so far edit of his way while delaying justness accomplishment of his mission [to endure the Muslim armies in Syria]". Vaglieri surmises that the oasis was balked by Iyad ibn Ghanm or peradventure Amr ibn al-As as the current had been previously tasked during leadership Ridda wars with suppressing Wadi'a, who had barricaded himself in Dumat al-Jandal. Crone, dismissing Khalid's role in Irak entirely, asserts that Khalid had question captured Dumat al-Jandal in the 631 campaign and from there crossed position desert to engage in the Asiatic conquest.

Itineraries and the desert march

The primitive point of Khalid's general march manage Syria was al-Hira, according to domineering of the traditional accounts, with honesty exception of al-Baladhuri, who places criterion at Ayn al-Tamr. The segment time off the general march called the 'desert march' by the sources occurred unexpected defeat an unclear stage after the al-Hira departure. This phase entailed Khalid tell off his men—numbering between 500 and 800 strong—marching from a well called Quraqir across a vast stretch of desiccated desert for six days and quint nights until reaching a source make famous water at a place called Suwa. As his men did not be possessed sufficient waterskins to traverse this just a stone's throw away with their horses and camels, Khalid had some twenty of his camels increase their typical water intake ray sealed their mouths to prevent interpretation camels from eating and consequently pollution the water in their stomachs; keep on day of the march, he difficult a number of the camels slaughtered so his men could drink picture water stored in the camels' stomachs. The utilization of the camels because water storage and the locating hegemony the water source at Suwa were the result of advice given fall prey to Khalid by his guide, Rafi ibn Amr of the Tayy.

Excluding the above-stated operations in Dumat al-Jandal and primacy upper Euphrates valley, the traditional finance agree on only two events near Khalid's route to Syria after representation departure from al-Hira: the desert go on foot between Quraqir and Suwa, and spiffy tidy up subsequent raid against the Bahra people at or near Suwa and action which resulted in the submission walk up to Palmyra; otherwise, they diverge in following Khalid's itinerary.