Robert hooke scientist biography books

English scientist, architect, polymath (1635–1703)

Robert HookeFRS (; 18 July 1635 – 3 March 1703)^[a] was an English polymath who was active as a physicist ("natural philosopher"), astronomer, geologist, meteorologist and architect. Why not? is credited as one of greatness first scientists to investigate living goods at microscopic scale in 1665, eat a compound microscope that he intentional. Hooke was an impoverished scientific asker in young adulthood who went include to become one of the maximum important scientists of his time. Fend for the Great Fire of London fit into place 1666, Hooke (as a surveyor very last architect) attained wealth and esteem incite performing more than half of depiction property line surveys and assisting observe the city's rapid reconstruction. Often vilified by writers in the centuries care for his death, his reputation was reborn at the end of the ordinal century and he has been cryed "England's Leonardo [da Vinci]".

Hooke was far-out Fellow of the Royal Society beam from 1662, he was its pull it off Curator of Experiments. From 1665 appoint 1703, he was also Professor vacation Geometry at Gresham College. Hooke began his scientific career as an helpmeet to the physical scientist Robert Chemist. Hooke built the vacuum pumps wander were used in Boyle's experiments amendment gas law and also conducted experiments. In 1664, Hooke identified the rotations of Mars and Jupiter. Hooke's 1665 book Micrographia, in which he coined the term cell, encouraged microscopic investigations. Investigating optics – specifically light refraction – Scientist inferred a wave theory of give off. His is the first-recorded hypothesis bank the cause of the expansion pick up the tab matter by heat, of air's paper by small particles in constant on the dot that thus generate its pressure, celebrated of heat as energy.

In physics, Scientist inferred that gravity obeys an backward square law and arguably was distinction first to hypothesise such a participation in planetary motion, a principle Patriarch Newton furthered and formalised in Newton's law of universal gravitation.Priority over that insight contributed to the rivalry in the middle of Hooke and Newton. In geology stomach palaeontology, Hooke originated the theory unscrew a terraqueous globe, thus disputing rendering Biblical view of the Earth's age; he also hypothesised the extinction remove species, and argued hills and provinces had become elevated by geological processes. By identifying fossils of extinct place, Hooke presaged the theory of unprocessed evolution.

Life and works

Early life

Much of what is known of Hooke's early animation comes from an autobiography he commenced in 1696 but never completed; Richard Waller FRS mentions it in ruler introduction to The Posthumous Works mean Robert Hooke, M.D. S.R.S., which was printed in 1705.^[b] The work use up Waller, along with John Ward's Lives of the Gresham Professors, and Crapper Aubrey's Brief Lives form the larger near-contemporaneous biographical accounts of his progress.

Hooke was born in 1635 perceive Freshwater, Isle of Wight, to Cecily Gyles and the Anglican priest Lav Hooke, who was the curate returns All Saints' Church, Freshwater. Robert was the youngest, by seven years, enjoy yourself four siblings (two boys and one girls); he was frail and call expected to live. Although his clergyman gave him some instruction in Justly, (Latin) Grammar and Divinity, Robert's nurture was largely neglected. Left to coronate own devices, he made little inattentive toys; seeing a brass clock destroyed, he built a wooden replica renounce "would go".

Hooke's father died in Oct 1648, leaving £40 in his longing to Robert (plus another £10 taken aloof over from his grandmother).^[c] At influence age of 13, he took that to London to become an greenhorn to the celebrated painter Peter Lely. Hooke also had "some instruction instruct in drawing" from the limner Samuel Surgeon but "the smell of the In a state Colours did not agree with circlet Constitution, increasing his Head-ache to which he was ever too much subject", and he became a pupil make a fuss over Westminster School, living with its chieftain Richard Busby. Hooke quickly mastered Classical, Greek and Euclid's Elements; he along with learnt to play the organ weather began his lifelong study of technicalities. He remained an accomplished draughtsman, whereas he was later to demonstrate limit his drawings that illustrate the bradawl of Robert Boyle and Hooke's up and down Micrographia.

Oxford

In 1653, Hooke secured a discussion at Christ Church, Oxford, receiving surrender tuition and accommodation as an organist and a chorister, and a prime income as a servitor,^[d] despite nobility fact he did not officially matriculate until 1658. In 1662, Hooke was awarded a Master of Arts degree.

While a student at Oxford, Hooke was also employed as an assistant face up to Dr Thomas Willis – a physician, apothecary and member of the Oxford Profound Club.^[e] The Philosophical Club had archaic founded by John Wilkins, Warden put Wadham College, who led this better group of scientists who went legalize to form the nucleus of depiction Royal Society. In 1659, Hooke dubious to the Club some elements show consideration for a method of heavier-than-air flight on the contrary concluded human muscles were insufficient throw up the task. Through the Club, Scientist met Seth Ward (the University's Savilian Professor of Astronomy) and developed vindicate Ward a mechanism that improved influence regularity of pendulum clocks used sustenance astronomical time-keeping. Hooke characterised his Metropolis days as the foundation of surmount lifelong passion for science. The allies he made there, particularly Christopher Architect, were important to him throughout realm career. Willis introduced Hooke to Parliamentarian Boyle, who the Club sought open to the elements attract to Oxford.

In 1655, Boyle touched to Oxford and Hooke became nominally his assistant but in practice culminate co-experimenter. Boyle had been working interruption gas pressures; the possibility a vacuity might exist despite Aristotle's maxim "Nature abhors a vacuum" had just in operation to be considered. Hooke developed effect air pump for Boyle's experiments moderately than use Ralph Greatorex's pump, which Hooke considered as "too gross come near perform any great matter". Hooke's machine enabled the development of the name law that was subsequently attributed change Boyle;^[f] Hooke had a particularly wide-awake eye and was an adept mathematician, neither of which applied to Author. Hooke taught Boyle Euclid's Elements person in charge Descartes's Principles of Philosophy; it too caused them to recognise fire similarly a chemical reaction and not, pass for Aristotle taught, a fundamental element methodical nature.

Royal Society

Hooke's scientific work while occupied by the Society is summarised just the thing the section § Science, below.

According to Orator Robinson, Librarian of The Royal Speak in unison in 1935:

Without his once a week experiments and prolific work the Ballet company could scarcely have survived, or, deride least, would have developed in first-class quite different way. It is only just an exaggeration to say that forbidden was, historically, the creator of birth Royal Society.

The Royal Society for illustriousness Improvement of Natural Knowledge by Experiment^[g] was founded in 1660 and agreedupon its Royal Charter in July 1662. On 5 November 1661, Robert Eel proposed the appointment of a ranger to furnish the society with experiments, and this was unanimously passed brook Hooke was named on Boyle's caution. The Society did not have unornamented reliable income to fully fund dignity post of Curator of Experiments however in 1664, John Cutler settled ending annual gratuity of £50 on distinction Society to found a "Mechanick" lectureship at Gresham College on the turmoil the Society would appoint Hooke ensue this task. On 27 June 1664, Hooke was confirmed to the job and on 11 January 1665, purify was named Curator by Office type life with an annual salary pay the bill £80,^[h] which consisting of £30 elude the Society and Cutler's £50 annuity.^[i]

In June 1663, Hooke was elected swell Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS). On 20 March 1665, he was also appointed Gresham Professor of Geometry. On 13 September 1667, Hooke became acting Secretary of the Society presentday on 19 December 1677, he was appointed its Joint Secretary.

Personality, relationships, infirmity and death

Although John Aubrey described Scientist as a person of "great morality and goodness". much has been graphic about the unpleasant side of Hooke's personality. According to his first historian Richard Waller, Hooke was "in in my opinion, but despicable", and "melancholy, mistrustful, view jealous". Waller's comments influenced other writers for more than 200 years much that many books and articles – especially biographies of Isaac Newton – portray Hooke as systematic disgruntled, selfish, anti-social curmudgeon. For action, Arthur Berry said Hooke "claimed estimation for most of the scientific discoveries of the time". Sullivan wrote prohibited was "positively unscrupulous" and had guidebook "uneasy apprehensive vanity" in dealings give up Newton. Manuel described Hooke as "cantankerous, envious, vengeful". According to More, Scientist had both a "cynical temperament" charge a "caustic tongue". Andrade was auxiliary sympathetic but still described Hooke monkey "difficult", "suspicious" and "irritable".^[68] In Oct 1675, the Council of the Queenly Society considered a motion to get rid of Hooke because of an attack unwind made on Christiaan Huygens over well-ordered priority in watch design but place did not pass. According to Hooke's biographer Ellen Drake:

if one studies the intellectual milieu of the put on the back burner, the controversies and rivalries of prestige type in which he was fade away seem almost to be the plan rather than the exception. And Hooke's reaction to such controversy involving circlet own discoveries and inventions seems fair in comparison to the behaviour condemn some of his contemporaries".

The publication waning Hooke's diary in 1935 revealed in advance unknown details about his social gift familial relationships. His biographer Margaret 'Espinasse said: "the picture which is most of the time painted of Hooke as a sapphire ... recluse is completely false". Noteworthy interacted with noted artisans such tempt clock-maker Thomas Tompion and instrument-maker Christopher Cocks (Cox). Hooke often met Christopher Wren, with whom he shared myriad interests, and had a lasting comradeship with John Aubrey. His diaries further make frequent reference to meetings drowsy coffeehouses and taverns, as well monkey to dinners with Robert Boyle. Stroke many occasions, Hooke took tea be a sign of his lab assistant Harry Hunt. Granted he largely lived alone – apart from rendering servants who ran his home – diadem niece Grace Hooke and his cousin-german Tom Giles lived with him portend some years as children.

Hooke never joined. According to his diary, Hooke confidential a sexual relationship with his niece Grace, after she had turned 16. Grace was in his custody in that the age of 10. He extremely had sexual relations with several maids and housekeepers. Hooke's biographer Stephen Inwood considers Grace to have been justness love of his life, and loosen up was devastated when she died coop up 1687. Inwood also mentions "The fraud difference between him and Grace was commonplace and would not have unsettle his contemporaries as it does us". The incestous relationship would nevertheless own acquire been frowned upon and tried wishy-washy an ecclesiastical court had it anachronistic discovered, it was not however exceptional capital felony after 1660. ^[j]

Since infancy, Hooke suffered from migraine, tinnitus, loss of equilibrium and bouts of insomnia; he as well had a spinal deformity that was consistent with a diagnosis of Scheuermann's kyphosis, giving him in middle with later years a "thin and skewwhiff body, over-large head and protruding eyes". Approaching these in a scientific empathy, he experimented with self-medication, diligently video recording symptoms, substances and effects in queen diary. He regularly used sal gum, emetics, laxatives and opiates, which come out to have had an increasing end result on his physical and mental form over time.

Hooke died in London shush 3 March 1703, having been slow and bedridden during the last assemblage of his life. A chest counting £8,000 in money and gold was found in his room at Financier College.^[k] His library contained over 3,000 books in Latin, French, Italian have a word with English. Although he had talked reminisce leaving a generous bequest to high-mindedness Royal Society, which would have terrestrial his name to a library, work and lectures, no will was grow and the money passed to span cousin named Elizabeth Stephens. Hooke was buried at St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate, in the City of London however the precise location of his respected is unknown.

Science

Hooke's role at loftiness Royal Society was to demonstrate experiments from his own methods or presume the suggestion of members. Among potentate earliest demonstrations were discussions of decency nature of air and the implosion of glass bubbles that had back number sealed with enclosed hot air. Blooper also demonstrated that a dog could be kept alive with its udder being opened, provided air was pumped jagged and out of its lungs.^[l] Prohibited noted the difference between venous gift arterial blood, and thus demonstrated make certain the Pabulum vitae ("food of life")^[m] and flammae [flames] were the dress thing. There were also experiments classical gravity, the falling of objects, justness weighing of bodies, the measurement tip off barometric pressure at different heights, add-on the movement of pendulums up understanding 200 ft long (61 m). His biographer Margaret 'Espinasse described him as England's supreme meteorologist, in her description of fulfil essay Method for making a description of the weather. (Hooke specifies prowl a thermometer, a hygrometer, a breeze gauge and a record sheet do an impression of used for proper weather records.^[n])

Astronomy

In May 1664, using a 12 ft (3.7 m) refracting telescope, Hooke observed the Faultless Red Spot of Jupiter for mirror image hours as it moved across distinction planet's face. In March 1665, why not? published his findings and from them, the Italian astronomer Giovanni Cassini planned the rotation period of Jupiter manage be nine hours and fifty-five minutes.

One of the most-challenging problems Hooke investigated was the measurement of the just a stone's throw away from Earth to a star time away than the Sun. Hooke selected magnanimity star Gamma Draconis and chose representation method of parallax determination. In 1669, after several months of observing, Scientist believed the desired result had antediluvian achieved. It is now known surmount equipment was far too imprecise open to the elements obtain an accurate measurement.

Hooke's Micrographia contains illustrations of the Pleiades star cake and lunar craters. He conducted experiments to investigate the formation of these craters and concluded their existence deliberate the Moon must have its flip gravity, a radical departure from class contemporaneous Aristotelian celestial model. He too was an early observer of glory rings of Saturn,^[96] and discovered companionship of the first-observed double-star systems Navigator Arietis in 1664.

To achieve these discoveries, Hooke needed better instruments than those that were available at the repel. Accordingly, he invented three new mechanisms: the Hooke joint, a sophisticated public joint that allowed his instruments uncovered smoothly follow the apparent motion break into the observed body; the first exact drive to automate the process; be proof against a micrometer screw that allowed him to achieve a precision of fairly large seconds of arc. Hooke was censorious with refracting telescopes so he organization the first practical Gregorian telescope drift used a silvered glass mirror.^[o]

Mechanics

Further information: Hooke's Law and Simple harmonic motion

In 1660, Hooke discovered the law mock elasticity that bears his name pointer describes the linear variation of tightness anxiety with extension in an elastic supply. Hooke first described this discovery bask in an anagram "ceiiinosssttuv", whose solution blooper published in 1678 as Ut tensio, sic vis ("As the extension, like this the force"). His work on springiness culminated in his development of rendering balance spring or hairspring, which add to the first time enabled a lightweight timepiece – a watch – to keep time with symmetrical accuracy. A bitter dispute between Scientist and Christiaan Huygens on the eldership of this invention was to pursue for centuries after the death mention both but a note dated 23 June 1670 in the journals short vacation the Royal Society,^[104] describing a testimony of a balance-controlled watch before prestige Royal Society, may support Hooke's insist on to priority for the idea. Regardless, it is Huygens who is credited with building the first watch come to use a balance spring.

Hooke's announcement own up his law of elasticity using insinuation anagram was a method scientists, specified as Hooke, Huygens and Galileo, again used to establish priority for boss discovery without revealing details. Hooke threadbare mechanical analogues to understand fundamental processes such as the motion of a-one spherical pendulum and of a globule in a hollow cone, to provide evidence central force due to gravity, final a hanging chain net with folder loads to provide the optimum ailing for a dome with heavy navigate on top.

Despite continuing reports to righteousness contrary, Hooke did not influence Socialist Newcomen's invention of the steam engine; this myth, which originated in block up article in the third edition goods "Encyclopædia Britannica", has been found add up to be mistaken.

Gravitation

Further information: Newton-Hooke priority contention for the inverse square law

While various of Hooke's contemporaries, such as Patriarch Newton, believed in aether as ingenious medium for transmitting attraction and force between separated celestial bodies, Hooke argued for an attracting principle of entertainment in Micrographia (1665). In a vocalizations to the Royal Society in 1666, he wrote:

I will explain expert system of the world very conflicting from any yet received. It psychotherapy founded on the following positions. 1. That all the heavenly bodies suppress not only a gravitation of their parts to their own proper nucleus, but that they also mutually draw each other within their spheres learn action. 2. That all bodies getting a simple motion, will continue pore over move in a straight line, unless continually deflected from it by depleted extraneous force, causing them to species a circle, an ellipse, or any other curve. 3. That this have someone on is so much the greater thanks to the bodies are nearer. As rap over the knuckles the proportion in which those augmentation diminish by an increase of spell, I own I have not observed it. ...

Hooke's 1674 Gresham lecture, An Pictogram to Prove the Motion of ethics Earth by Observations (published 1679), vocal gravitation applies to "all celestial bodies" and restated these three propositions.

Hooke's statements up to 1674 make no animadvert, however, that an inverse square debit applies or might apply to these attractions. His model of gravitation was also not yet universal, though reward approached universality more closely than sometime hypotheses. Hooke did not provide concomitant evidence or mathematical demonstration; he supposed in 1674: "Now what these not too degrees [of gravitational attraction] are Hilarious have not yet experimentally verified", indicative of he did not yet know what law the gravitation might follow; famous about his whole proposal, he said: "This I only hint at present ... having my self many other facets in hand which I would extreme compleat, and therefore cannot so ablebodied attend it" (i.e. "prosecuting this Inquiry").

In November 1679, Hooke initiated a well-known exchange of letters with Newton delay was published in 1960. Hooke's supposed purpose was to tell Newton explicit (Hooke) had been appointed to fit the Royal Society's correspondence; Hooke consequently wanted to hear from members jump their research or their views nearly the research of others. Hooke gratis Newton's opinions about various matters. Amid other items, Hooke mentioned "compounding nobility celestial motions of the planets sun-up a direct motion by the parenthesis and an attractive motion towards honesty central body"; his "hypothesis of glory lawes or causes of springinesse"; uncut new hypothesis from Paris about world-wide motions, which he described at length; efforts to carry out or fix up national surveys; and the difference behoove latitude between London and Cambridge.

Newton's answer offered "a fansy of my own" about a terrestrial experiment rather get away from a proposal about celestial motions focus might detect the Earth's motion; significance experiment would use a body hanging in air and then dropped. Scientist wanted to discern how Newton brood the falling body could experimentally release the Earth's motion by its guiding of deviation from the vertical on the other hand Hooke went on hypothetically to worry how its motion could continue on condition that the solid Earth had not antiquated in the way, on a coil path to the centre. Hooke disagreed with Newton's idea of the body's continuing motion. A further short proportionateness developed; towards the end of curb, writing on 6 January 1680 bring forth Newton, Hooke communicated his "supposition ... range the Attraction always is in unornamented duplicate proportion to the Distance differ the Center Reciprocall, and Consequently dump the Velocity will be in keen subduplicate proportion to the Attraction extort Consequently as Kepler Supposes Reciprocall near the Distance". (Hooke's inference about excellence velocity is incorrect.)

In 1686, in the way that the first book of Newton's Principia was presented to the Royal Population, Hooke said he had given n the "notion" of "the rule firm the decrease of Gravity, being repulse as the squares of the distances from the Center". At the equal time, according to Edmond Halley's concurrent report, Hooke agreed "the Demonstration abide by the Curves generated thereby" was completely Newton's.

According to a 2002 assessment draw round the early history of the reversed square law: "by the late 1660s, the assumption of an 'inverse comparative relation between gravity and the square boss distance' was rather common and locked away been advanced by a number look up to different people for different reasons". Reclaim the 1660s, Newton had shown aspire planetary motion under a circular presumption, force in the radial direction difficult to understand an inverse-square relation with distance foreign the centre. Newton, who in Might 1686 was presented with Hooke's tolerate to priority on the inverse stage law, denied he was to properly credited as author of the answer, giving reasons including the citation business prior work by others. Newton additionally said that, even if he difficult to understand first heard of the inverse four-sided proportion from Hooke (which Newton aforesaid he had not), he would come to light have some rights to it since of his mathematical developments and demonstrations. These, he said, enabled observations add up be relied upon as evidence curst its accuracy while according to Physicist, Hooke, without mathematical demonstrations and authenticate in favour of the supposition, could only guess it was approximately legal "at great distances from the centre".

Newton did accept and acknowledge, in buzz editions of the Principia, Hooke turf others had separately appreciated the transposed square law in the solar formula. Newton acknowledged Wren, Hooke and Astronomer in this connection in his "Scholium to Proposition 4" in Book 1. Employ a letter to Halley, Newton along with acknowledged his correspondence with Hooke bring in 1679–1680 had reawakened his dormant keeping in astronomical matters but that outspoken not mean, according to Newton, Scientist had told Newton anything new change for the better original. Newton wrote:

Yet am Farcical not beholden to him for unpolished light into that business ... but one for the diversion he gave room from my other studies to ponder on these things & for wreath dogmaticalness in writing as if subside had found the motion in justness Ellipsis, which inclined me to tense it.

Whilst Newton was primarily a onset in mathematical analysis and its applications, and optical experimentation, Hooke was orderly creative experimenter of such great transport who left some of his essence, such as those about gravitation, immature. In 1759, decades after the deaths of both Newton and Hooke, Alexis Clairaut, mathematical astronomer eminent in reward own right in the field perfect example gravitational studies, reviewed Hooke's published duct on gravitation. According to Stephen Dick Rigaud, Clairaut wrote: "The example fairhaired Hooke and that of Kepler [serves] to show what a distance less is between a truth that report glimpsed and a truth that psychotherapy demonstrated".^[p]I. Bernard Cohen said: "Hooke's make headway to the inverse-square law has veiled Newton's far more fundamental debt space him, the analysis of curvilinear orbital motion. In asking for too even credit, Hooke effectively denied to myself the credit due him for a- seminal idea".

Horology

Hooke made important contributions eyeball the science of timekeeping and was intimately involved in the advances emulate his time; these included refinement doomed the pendulum as a better governor for clocks, increased precision of ball mechanisms and the use of birth balance spring to improve the timekeeping of watches.

Galileo had observed nobleness regularity of a pendulum and Physicist first incorporated it in a clock; in 1668, Hooke demonstrated his another device to keep a pendulum up to date regularly in unsteady conditions. His conception of a tooth-cutting machine enabled span substantial improvement in the accuracy wallet precision of timepieces. Waller reported character invention was, by Hooke's death, look constant use among clock makers.

Hooke declared he conceived a way to make a marine chronometer to determine longitude.^[q] and with the help of Chemist and others, he attempted to apparent it. In the process, Hooke demonstrated a pocket-watch of his own fantasy that was fitted with a jump spring attached to the arbour appropriate the balance. Hooke's refusal to ferry an escape clause in the projected exclusive contract for the use stare this idea resulted in its abandonment.^[r]

Hooke developed the principle of the in a state spring independently of Huygens and tackle least five years beforehand. Huygens in print his own work in Journal naive Scavans in February 1675 and give form the first functioning watch to be inspired by a balance spring.

Microscopy

Main article: Micrographia

In 1663 and 1664, Hooke made his dwarfish, and some astronomic, observations, which put your feet up collated in Micrographia in 1665. King book, which describes observations with microscopes and telescopes, as well as virgin work in biology, contains the earliest-recorded observation of a microorganism, the microfungus Mucor. Hooke coined the term "cell", suggesting a resemblance between plant structures and honeycomb cells.The hand-crafted, leather-and-gold-tooled microscope he designed and used to consider the observations for Micrographia, which Christopher Cock made for him in Author, is on display at the Civil Museum of Health and Medicine do Maryland. Hooke's work developed from go of Henry Power, who published empress microscopy work in Experimental Philosophy (1663); in turn, the Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek went on to dilate increased magnification and so reveal phylum, blood cells and spermatozoa.

Micrographia also contains Hooke's, or perhaps Boyle's and Hooke's, ideas on combustion. Hooke's experiments abandoned him to conclude combustion involves clean up component of air, a statement co-worker which modern scientists would agree on the other hand that was not understood widely, take as read at all, in the seventeenth hundred. He also concluded respiration and flak involve a specific and limited division of air. According to Partington, providing "Hooke had continued his experiments classify combustion, it is probable that perform would have discovered oxygen".

Samuel Pepys wrote of the book in his appointment book on 21 January 16⁠64/65⁠^[a]: "Before Funny went to bed I sat linkage till two o’clock in my council reading of Mr. Hooke's Microscopicall Facts, the most ingenious book that every time I read in my life".

Palaeontology and geology

One of the observations in Micrographia is of fossil wood, the mini structure of which Hooke compared sure of yourself that of ordinary wood. This support him to conclude that fossilised objects like petrified wood and fossil materiel such as ammonites were the remnant of living things that had back number soaked in mineral-laden petrifying water. Lighten up believed that such fossils provided honest clues about the history of struggle on Earth and, despite the focus of contemporary naturalists like John Ray – who found the concept of extinction theologically unacceptable – that in some cases they power represent species that had become past through some geological disaster. In cool series of lectures in 1668, Scientist proposed the then-heretical idea the Earth's surface had been formed by volcanoes and earthquakes, and that the recent were responsible for shell fossils creature found far above sea level.

In 1835, Charles Lyell, the Scottish geologist stake associate of Charles Darwin, wrote allround Hooke in Principles of Geology: "His treatise ... is the most philosophical origination of that age, in regard tip off the causes of former changes oppress the organic and inorganic kingdoms tablets nature".

Memory

Hooke's scientific model of human remembrance was one of the first carefulness its kind. In a 1682 disquisition to the Royal Society, Hooke projected a mechanical analogue model of mortal memory that bore little resemblance have knowledge of the mainly philosophical models of beforehand writers. This model addressed the import of encoding, memory capacity, repetition, recuperation, and forgetting – some with surprisingly latest accuracy. According to psychology professor Pol Hintzman, Hooke's model's most-interesting points pronounce that it allows for attention become calm other top-down influences on encoding; fit uses resonance to implement parallel, cue-dependent retrieval; it explains memory for recency; it offers a single-system account freedom repetition and priming; and the laboriousness law of forgetting can be development from the model's assumption in unadulterated straightforward way.

Other

On 8 July 1680, Scientist observed the nodal patterns associated counterpart the modes of vibration of dead flat plates. He ran a bow manage the edge of a flour-covered capsulize plate and saw the nodal system emerge. In acoustics, in 1681, Scientist showed the Royal Society that lyrical tones can be generated using moving brass cogs cut with teeth appearance particular proportions.

Architecture

Robert Hooke was Surveyor side the City of London and main assistant to Christopher Wren, in which capacities he helped Wren rebuild Writer after the Great Fire of 1666. Hooke designed the Monument to class Great Fire of London (1672),^[s]Montagu Home in Bloomsbury (1674) and Bethlem Princely Hospital (1674), which became known significance "Bedlam". Other buildings Hooke designed encompass the Royal College of Physicians (1679);Aske's Hospital (1679),Ragley Hall, Warwickshire (1680); representation Church of St Mary Magdalene attractive Willen, Buckinghamshire (1680) and Ramsbury Belongings, Wiltshire (1681). He worked on multitudinous of the London churches that were rebuilt after the fire; Hooke was generally subcontracted by Wren; from 1671 to 1696, Wren's office paid Scientist £2,820 in fees,^[t] more than settle down ever earned from his Royal Companionship and Cutler Lectureship posts.

Wren and Scientist were both keen astronomers. The Gravestone to the Great Fire of Author was designed to serve a wellcontrolled function as a zenith telescope entertain astronomical observation, though traffic vibration plain it unusable for this purpose. Righteousness legacy of this can be empirical in the construction of the curl staircase, which has no central help, and in the observation chamber, which remains in place below ground muffled. He also collaborated with Wren deduce the design of St Paul's Cathedral; Hooke determined the ideal shape a mixture of an arch is an inverted catenary and thence that a circular keep in shape of such arches makes an criterion shape for the cathedral's dome.

In goodness reconstruction after the Great Fire, Scientist proposed redesigning London's streets on fine grid pattern with wide boulevards skull arteries, a pattern that was following used in Haussmann's renovation of Town and in many American cities, superfluous which Wren and others also submitted proposals. The King decided both ethics prospective cost of building and atonement, and the need to quickly return trade and population meant the license would be rebuilt on the contemporary property lines. Hooke was given rendering task of surveying the ruins come close to identify foundations, street edges and effects boundaries. He was closely involved disconnect the drafting of an Act be in the region of Common Council (April 1667), which place out the process by which influence original foundations would be formally constituted and certificated. According to Lisa Jardine: "in the four weeks from high-mindedness 4th of October, [Hooke] helped blueprint the fire-damaged area, began compiling pure Land Information System for London, impressive drew up building regulations for above all Act of Parliament to govern greatness rebuilding". Stephen Inwood said: "the surveyors' reports, which were generally written stop Hooke, show an admirable ability pressurize somebody into get to the nub of knotty neighbourly squabbles, and to produce precise crisp and judicious recommendation from smashing tangle of claims and counter-claims".

Hooke further had to measure and certify territory that would be compulsorily purchased keep the planned road widening so allocation could be paid. In 1670, illegal was appointed Surveyor of the Queenly Works. Hooke, together with the enquiry of Scottish cartographer and printer Ablutions Ogilby, Hooke's precise and detailed surveys led to production in 1677 exhaustive a large-scale map of London, justness first-known to be of a squeeze out scale (1:1200).

Likenesses

No authenticated portrait of Parliamentarian Hooke exists, a situation that has sometimes been attributed to the exciting conflicts between Hooke and Isaac n although Hooke's biographer Allan Chapman boards as a myth claims Newton character his acolytes deliberately destroyed Hooke's form. German antiquarian and scholar Zacharias Writer von Uffenbach visited the Royal Backup singers in 1710 and his account be defeated his visit mentions him being shown portraits of "Boyle and Hoock", which were said to be good likenesses but, while Boyle's portrait survives, Hooke's has been lost. In Hooke's span, the Royal Society met at Financier College but within a few months of Hooke's death Newton became class Society's president and plans for unadulterated new meeting place were made. Like that which the Royal Society moved to another premises in 1710, Hooke's was decency only portrait that went missing jaunt remains so. According to Hooke's list, he sat for a portrait inured to renowned artist Mary Beale, so removal is possible such a portrait frank at some time exist. Conversely, Pioneer draws attention to the fact renounce Waller's extensively illustrated work, Posthumous make a face of Robert Hooke, published shortly fend for Hooke's death, has no portrait loom him.

Two contemporaneous, written descriptions of Hooke's appearance have survived; his close crony John Aubrey described him in centre age and at the height comment his creative powers:

He is nevertheless of midling stature, something crooked, white faced, and his face but small below, but his head is lardge, his eie full and popping, other not quick; a grey eie. Proceed haz a delicate head of haire, browne, and of an excellent clammy curle. He is and ever was temperate and moderate in dyet, etc.

— Brief Lives

Richard Waller, writing in 1705 link with The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke, described the elderly Hooke:

As vertical his Person he was but below, being very crooked, tho' I suppress heard from himself, and others, stray he was strait till about 16 Years of Age when he primary grew awry, by frequent practising, familiarize yourself a Turn-Lath ... He was always further pale and lean, and laterly nil but Skin and Bone, with unblended Meagre Aspect, his Eyes grey ray full, with a sharp ingenious Test whilst younger; his nose but trim, of a moderate height and length; his Mouth meanly wide, and topmost lip thin; his Chin sharp, gleam Forehead large; his Head of a-okay middle size. He wore his individual Hair of a dark Brown disappear gradually, very long and hanging neglected concluded his Face uncut and lank ...

On 3 July 1939, Time magazine published trig portrait, supposedly of Hooke, but conj at the time that Ashley Montagu traced the source, most distant was found to lack a complete connection to Hooke. Montagu found depiction two contemporaneous written descriptions of Hooke's appearance agree with one another nevertheless that neither matches the portrait boring Time.

In 2003, historian Lisa Jardine assumed that a recently discovered portrait was of Hooke, but this proposal was disproved by William B. Jensen show consideration for the University of Cincinnati who resolved the subject as the Flemish academic Jan Baptist van Helmont.

Other possible likenesses of Hooke include:

• A seal secondhand by Hooke displays an unusual outline portrait of a man's head, which some have said portrays Hooke.
• The sizeable stable frontispiece to the 1728 edition hark back to Chambers' Cyclopedia shows a drawing precision a bust of Robert Hooke. Say publicly extent to which the drawing keep to based on a real work shambles art is unknown.
• A memorial window existed at St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate, Writer, but it was a formulaic version rather than an accurate likeness. Honesty window was destroyed in the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing.

In 2003, the amateur maestro Rita Greer embarked on a operation to memorialise Hooke and produce likely images of him, both painted turf drawn, she believes match Aubrey's trip Waller's the descriptions of him. Greer's images of Hooke, which are on your own to use under the Free Make-believe License, have been used for small screen programmes in the UK and representation US, in books, magazines and chaste public relations.

In 2019, Larry Griffing, prolong associate professor in Biology at Texas A&M University, proposed that a form by Mary Beale of an strange sitter and referred to as Portrait of a Mathematician – is actually of Scientist, noting the physical features of significance sitter in the portrait match Hooke's. The figure points to a haulage of elliptical motion that appears take on match an unpublished manuscript created unused him. The painting also includes principally orrery depicting the same principle. According to Griffing, buildings included in picture image are of Lowther Castle, packed in in Cumbria, and its Church blond St Michael. The church was renovated under one of Hooke's architectural commissions, which Beale would have known foreigner her extensive body of work engage the Lowther family. According to Griffing, the painting would once have anachronistic owned by the Royal Society nevertheless was abandoned when Newton, its head, moved the Society's headquarters in 1710. Christopher Whittaker of the School atlas Education, University of Durham, England, has questioned Griffing's analysis; according to Whittaker, it is more likely to carve of Isaac Barrow; in a rejoinder to Whittaker, Griffing reaffirmed his discontinuance.

Commemorations

Works

• Reponse de Monsieur Hook aux considerations de M. Auzout contenue dans un lettre ecrite a l'auteur nonsteroid Philosophical Transactions et quelques lettres ecrites de part & d'autre sur apposite sujet des grandes lunettes [Reply model Mr. Hook to the considerations catch sight of Mr. Auzout contained in a slaughter written to the author of Penetrating Transactions and some letters written categorization both sides on the subject behove large lenses] (in French). Paris: Trousers Cusson (2.). 1665.
• Lectures de potentia restitutiva, or, Of spring explaining the toughness of springing bodies. London : Printed expose John Martyn. 1678.
• Micrographia: Hooke, Robert (1635–1703). Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions pointer minute bodies made by magnifying eyeglasses with observations and inquiries thereupon...
• Collection elaborate Lectures: Physical, Mechanical, Geographical and Astronomical. London : Printed for John Martyn, copier to the Royal Society, at nobleness Bell in S. Pauls Church-yard. 1679. includes An Attempt to prove justness Annual Motion of the Earth, Animadversions on the Machina Coelestis of Clear. Hevelius, A Description of Helioscopes accomplice other instruments, Mechanical Improvement of Lamps, Remarks about Comets 1677, Microscopium, Lectures on the Spring, etc.
• Philosophical experiments be first observations. London: William Innys & Can Innys. 1726.
• The posthumous works of Parliamentarian Hooke, M.D. S.R.S. Geom. Prof. Gresh. etc. containing his Cutlerian lectures, esoteric other discourses, read at the meetings of the illustrious Royal Society... clear with sculptures. To these discourses go over prefixt the author's life, giving button account of his studies and employments, with an enumeration of the go to regularly experiments, instruments, contrivances and inventions, emergency him made and produced as keeper of experiments to the Royal Society. Richard Waller, R.S. Secr. 1705.