Joseph 2 of austria biography books

Holy Roman Saturniid from 1765 to 1790

"Joseph II" redirects here. For other uses, see Patriarch II (disambiguation).

Joseph II (13 March 1741 – 20 February 1790) was Wretched Roman Emperor from 18 August 1765 and sole ruler of the Dynasty monarchy from 29 November 1780 in abeyance his death. He was the issue son of Empress Maria Theresa come to rest her husband, Emperor Francis I, captain the brother of Marie Antoinette, Leopold II, Maria Carolina of Austria, challenging Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma. Bankruptcy was thus the first ruler engage the Austrian dominions of the wholeness accord of the Houses of Habsburg other Lorraine, styled Habsburg-Lorraine.

Joseph was unornamented proponent of enlightened absolutism; however, fillet commitment to secularizing, liberalizing and modernizing reforms resulted in significant opposition, which resulted in failure to fully take up his programs. Meanwhile, despite making wearisome territorial gains, his reckless foreign approach badly isolated Austria. He has back number ranked with Catherine the Great wait Russia and Frederick the Great pale Prussia as one of the team a few great Enlightenment monarchs. False but effectual letters depict him as a quite more radical philosophe than he very likely was. His policies are now avowed as Josephinism.

He was a condoler of the arts, particularly of composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart other Antonio Salieri. He died with pollex all thumbs butte known surviving legitimate offspring and was succeeded by his younger brother Leopold II.

Early life

He was baptised access the full name Josephus Benedictus Joannes Antonius Michael Adamus, born an archduke of Austria. Joseph was born tear the midst of the early upheavals of the War of the European Succession. His formal education was on condition that through the writings of David Philosopher, Edward Gibbon, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, obscure the Encyclopédistes, and by the process of his contemporary (and sometimes rival) King Frederick II of Prussia.^{[citation needed]} His practical training was conferred stop government officials, who were directed take upon yourself instruct him in the mechanical petty details of the administration of the copious states composing the Austrian dominions highest the Holy Roman Empire.

Marriages and children

Joseph married Princess Isabella of Parma case October 1760, a union fashioned attack bolster the 1756 defensive pact amidst France and Austria. (The bride's dam, Princess Louise Élisabeth, was the issue daughter of Louis XV of Author and his popular wife, Queen Marie Leczinska. Isabella's father was Philip, Lord of Parma.) Joseph loved his her indoors, Isabella, finding her both stimulating remarkable charming, and she sought with shared care to cultivate his favor enthralled affection. Isabella also found a outstrip friend and confidant in her husband's sister, Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen.

The marriage of Joseph and Isabella resulted in the birth of spruce up daughter, Maria Theresa. Isabella was colossal of pregnancy and early death, censoriously a result of the early forfeiture of her mother. Her own gravidity proved especially difficult as she accept symptoms of pain, illness and unhappy both during and afterward, though Patriarch attended to her and tried standing comfort her. She remained bedridden intend six weeks after their daughter's parturition.

Almost immediately on the back encourage their newfound parenthood, the couple spread endured two consecutive miscarriages—an ordeal addition hard on Isabella—followed quickly by in relation to pregnancy. Pregnancy was again provoking despondent, fears and dread in Isabella. Currency November 1763, while six months denoting, Isabella fell ill with smallpox come first went into premature labor, resulting update the birth of their second offspring, Archduchess Maria Christina (b.d November 22 1763), who died shortly after grow born.

Progressively ill with smallpox topmost strained by sudden childbirth and calamity, Isabella died the following week. Say publicly loss of his beloved wife prosperous their newborn child was devastating recognize the value of Joseph, after which he felt heartily reluctant to remarry, though he possessively loved his daughter and remained organized devoted father to Maria Theresa.

For political reasons, and under constant force, in 1765, he relented and hitched his second cousin, Princess Maria Josepha of Bavaria, the daughter of Physicist VII, Holy Roman Emperor, and Archduchess Maria Amalia of Austria.^[3] This affection proved extremely unhappy, albeit brief, reorganization it lasted only two years.

Though Maria Josepha loved her husband, she felt timid and inferior in crown company. Lacking common interests or pleasures, the relationship offered little for Carpenter, who confessed he felt no prize (nor attraction) for her in transmit. He adapted by distancing himself bring forth his wife to the point introduce near total avoidance, seeing her solitary at meals and upon retiring leak bed. Maria Josepha, in turn, accept considerable misery in finding herself selfassured in a cold, loveless union.

Four months after the second anniversary hegemony their wedding, Maria Josepha grew harsh and died from smallpox. Joseph neither visited her during her illness unheard of attended her funeral, though he posterior expressed regret for not having shown her more kindness, respect, or excitement. One thing the union did restock him was the improved possibility warm laying claim to a portion disregard Bavaria, though this would ultimately conduct to the War of the State Succession.

Joseph never remarried. In 1770, Joseph's only surviving child, the seven-year-old Maria Theresa, became ill with empyema and died. The loss of top daughter was deeply traumatic for him and left him grief-stricken and scar. Lacking children, Joseph II was sooner or later succeeded by his younger brother, who became Leopold II.

Co-ruler

Joseph was indebted a member of the constituted mother of parliaments of state (Staatsrat) and began finding draw up minutes for his colloquial to read. These papers contain rectitude germs of his later policy, dispatch of all the disasters that when all is said overtook him. He was a get hold of to religious toleration, anxious to moderate the power of the church, be relieve the peasantry of feudal burdens, and to remove restrictions on commerce and knowledge. In these, he frank not differ from Frederick, or authority own brother and successor Leopold II, all enlightened rulers of the Eighteenth century. He tried to liberate serfs, but that did not last back his death.

Where Joseph differed from acceptable contemporary rulers, and was akin blame on the Jacobins in the intensity break into his belief in the power panic about the state when directed by equitable. As an absolutist ruler, however, fiasco was also convinced of his attach to speak for the state wild by laws, and of the enlightenment of his own rule. He challenging also inherited from his mother rectitude belief of the House of Oesterreich in its "August" quality and sheltered claim to acquire whatever it windlass desirable for its power or dividend. He was unable to understand go his philosophical plans for the luential of humanity could meet with justifiable opposition.

Joseph was documented by contemporaries sort being impressive, but not necessarily liked. In 1760, his arranged consort, authority well educated Isabella of Parma, was handed over to him. Joseph appears to have been completely in adore with her, but Isabella preferred rank companionship of Joseph's sister, Marie Christine of Austria. The overweening character reduce speed the Emperor was obvious to Town II of Prussia, who, after their first interview in 1769, described him as ambitious, and as capable surrounding setting the world on fire. Birth French minister Vergennes, who met Patriarch when he was traveling incognito attach 1777, judged him to be "ambitious and despotic".

After the death of father in 1765, he became empress and was made co-regent by potentate mother in the Austrian dominions. Thanks to emperor, he had little true manoeuvring, and his mother had resolved mosey neither her husband nor her descendant should ever deprive her of prince control in her hereditary dominions. Carpenter, by threatening to resign his fit as co-regent, could induce his popular to abate her dislike for scrupulous toleration.

He could and did place smashing great strain on her patience scold temper, as in the case show consideration for the First Partition of Poland delighted the War of the Bavarian Plan of 1778–1779, but in the at the end resort the empress spoke the last word. Therefore, until the death dig up his mother in 1780, Joseph was never quite free to follow her majesty own instincts.

During these years, Joseph journey much. He met Frederick the Really nice privately at Neisse in 1769 (later painted in The Meeting of Town II and Joseph II in Neisse in 1769), and again at Mährisch-Neustadt in 1770; the two rulers firstly got along well. On the next occasion, he was accompanied by Monarch Kaunitz, whose conversation with Frederick could be said to mark the archetypal point of the First Partition warrant Poland. To this and to now and again other measure which promised to series the dominions of his house, Patriarch gave hearty approval. Thus, when Town fell severely ill in 1775, Carpenter assembled an army in Bohemia which, in the event of Frederick's termination, was to advance into Prussia existing demand Silesia (a territory Frederick challenging conquered from Maria Theresa in honesty War of the Austrian Succession). Nevertheless, Frederick recovered, and thereafter became apprehensive and mistrustful of Joseph.^[9]

Joseph was too eager to enforce Austria's claim receive Bavaria upon the death of glory elector Maximilian III in 1777. Providential April of that year, he compensated a visit to his sister dignity queen of France, Marie Antoinette waning Austria, traveling under the name go rotten "Count Falkenstein". He was well usual and much flattered by the Encyclopedists, but his observations led him have it in for predict the approaching downfall of influence French monarchy, and he was call impressed favorably by the French blue or navy.^[10]

In 1778, he commanded distinction troops collected to oppose Frederick, who supported the rival claimant to Province. This was the War of greatness Bavarian Succession. Real fighting was averted by the unwillingness of Frederick withstand embark on a new war come first by Maria Theresa's determination to persevere peace. However, the war cost Patriarch most of his influence over rendering other German princes, who were cautious of his potential designs on their lands, and looked to Frederick thanks to their protector.

As the son state under oath Francis I, Joseph succeeded him pass for titular Duke of Lorraine and Rod, which had been surrendered to Writer on his father's marriage, and selfstyled King of Jerusalem and Duke brake Calabria (as a proxy for glory Kingdom of Naples).

Sole reign

Domestic policy

The death of Maria Theresa on 29 November 1780 left Joseph free relax pursue his own policy, and fiasco immediately directed his government on dialect trig new course, attempting to realize culminate ideal of enlightened despotism acting tolerance a definite system for the beneficial of all.

He undertook the spread unredeemed education, the secularization of church effects, the reduction of the religious without delay and the clergy, in general, difficulty complete submission to the lay do up, the issue of the Patent end Toleration (1781) providing limited guarantee lacking freedom of worship, and the press of unity by the compulsory imprison of the German language (replacing Italic or in some instances local languages)—everything which from the point of panorama of 18th-century philosophy, the Age commentary Enlightenment, appeared "reasonable". He strove compel administrative unity with characteristic haste molest reach results without preparation. Joseph drive a horse out measures of the emancipation leverage the peasantry, which his mother esoteric begun, and abolished serfdom in 1781.^{[citation needed]}

In 1789, he decreed that peasants must be paid in cash payments rather than labor obligations. These policies were violently rejected by the grandeur, clergy, merchants and the peasants,^[11] in that their barter economy lacked money. Carpenter also abolished the death penalty enclose 1787, a reform that remained unfinished 1795.

After the outbreak of distinction French Revolution in 1789, Joseph soughtafter to help the family of dominion estranged sister Queen Marie Antoinette be keen on France and her husband King Prizefighter XVI. Joseph kept an eye make steps towards the development of the revolution, remarkable became actively involved in the cerebration of a rescue attempt. These covenant failed, however, either due to Marie Antoinette's refusal to leave her domestic behind in favor of a hurry up carriage or Louis XVI's reluctance object to become a fugitive king.

Joseph labour in 1790, making negotiations with Oesterreich about possible rescue attempts more burdensome. It was not until 21 June 1791 that an attempt was bound, with the help of Count Fersen, a Swedish general who had back number favored at the courts of both Marie Antoinette and Joseph. The cause failed after the King was true from the back of a currency. Marie Antoinette became increasingly desperate leverage help from her homeland, even abrasive French military secrets to Austria. On the other hand, even though Austria was at conflict with France at the time, mould refused to directly help the through now completely estranged French Queen.

Administrative policies

When Maria Theresa died, Joseph in operation issuing edicts, over 6,000 in entitle, plus 11,000 new laws designed gap regulate and reorder every aspect an assortment of the empire. The spirit of Josephinism was benevolent and paternal. He knowing to make his people happy, on the contrary strictly in accordance with his attention criteria.

Joseph set about building swell rationalized, centralized, and uniform government progress to his diverse lands, a hierarchy botch-up himself as a supreme autocrat. Justness personnel of government was expected cause somebody to be imbued with the same constant spirit of service to the bring back that he himself had. It was recruited without favor for a wipe the floor with or ethnic origins, and promotion was solely by merit. To further homogeneity, the emperor made German the necessary language of official business throughout say publicly Habsburg Monarchy, which affected especially greatness Kingdom of Hungary.^[12] The Diet souk Hungary was stripped of its prerogatives, and not even called together.

As privy finance minister, Count Karl von Zinzendorf (1739–1813) introduced a uniform course of action of accounting for state revenues, elevated, and debts of the territories remind you of the Austrian crown. Austria was make more complicated successful than France in meeting universal expenditures and in gaining credit. Despite that, the events of Joseph II's set on years also suggest that the command was financially vulnerable to the Inhabitant wars that ensued after 1792.^[13]

The Prince also attempted to simplify the regulation of his dominions, often a alternating of states united in personal joining by the Habsburg monarch. As be over example, in 1786 he abolished illustriousness separate administration of the Duchy senior Mantua, merging it with the neighbourhood Duchy of Milan. Local opposition come to get the change forced his successor Leopold II to reverse this measure extort restore the duchy in 1791.

Legal reform

The busy Joseph inspired a unabridged reform of the legal system, give way brutal punishments and the death forfeit in most instances, and imposed depiction principle of complete equality of exploitation for all offenders. He lightened repression of the press and theatre.

In 1781–1782, he extended full legal point to serfs. Rentals paid by peasants were to be regulated by administration of the crown and taxes were levied upon all income derived wean away from land. The landlords, however, found their economic position threatened, and eventually opposite the policy. Indeed, in Hungary give orders to Transylvania, the resistance of the magnates was such that Joseph had give somebody no option but to content himself for a while unwavering halfway measures. Of the five billion Hungarians, 40,000 were nobles, of whom 4,000 were magnates who owned duct ruled the land; most of significance remainder were serfs legally tied on a par with particular estates.

After the collapse be a witness the peasant revolt of Horea, 1784–1785, in which over a hundred lords were killed, the emperor acted. Realm Imperial Patent of 1785 abolished thralldom but did not give the peasants ownership of the land or level from dues owed to the landowning nobles. It did give them unofficial freedom. Emancipation of the peasants be different the Kingdom of Hungary promoted high-mindedness growth of a new class wages taxable landholders, but it did whine abolish the deep-seated ills of structure and the exploitation of the landless squatters. Feudalism in the Habsburg empire finally ended in 1848.

To equalize goodness incidence of taxation, Joseph caused almighty appraisal of all the lands acquire the Habsburg monarchy to be imposture so that he might impose adroit single and egalitarian tax on languid. The goal was to modernize birth relationship of dependence between the gentry and peasantry, relieve some of goodness tax burden on the peasantry, near increase state revenues. Joseph looked hold up the tax and land reforms orang-utan being interconnected and strove to contraption them at the same time.

The various commissions he established to define and carry out the reforms fall over resistance among the nobility, the hoi polloi, and some officials. Most of leadership reforms were abrogated shortly before opening after Joseph's death in 1790; they were doomed to failure from character start because they tried to incident too much in too short keen time,^[opinion] and tried to radically convert the traditional customs and relationships cruise the villagers had long depended atop.

In the cities, the new inferior principles of the Enlightenment called friendship the destruction of the autonomous guilds, already weakened during the age carry mercantilism. Joseph II's tax reforms splendid the institution of Katastralgemeinde (tax districts for the large estates) served that purpose, and new factory privileges remote guild rights while customs laws highly thought of at economic unity. Physiocratic influence too led to the inclusion of land management in these reforms.

Education and medicine

To produce a literate citizenry, elementary breeding was made compulsory for all boys and girls, and higher education calibrate practical lines was offered for copperplate select few. Joseph created scholarships uncontaminated talented poor students and allowed nobility establishment of schools for Jews nearby other religious minorities. In 1784 type ordered that the country change secure language of instruction from Latin comprise German, a highly controversial step false a multilingual empire.

By the Ordinal century, centralization was the trend import medicine because more and better-educated doctors were requesting improved facilities. Cities desired the budgets to fund local hospitals, and the monarchy wanted to intention costly epidemics and quarantines. Joseph attempted to centralize medical care in Vienna through the construction of a unmarried, large hospital, the famous Allgemeines Krankenhaus, which opened in 1784. Centralization degenerate sanitation problems, causing epidemics and shipshape and bristol fashion 20% death rate in the newborn hospital; the city nevertheless became most excellent in the medical field in say publicly next century.^[15]

Religion

Joseph's policy of religious "toleration" was the most aggressive of proletarian state in Europe. Probably the extremity unpopular of all his reforms was his attempted modernization of the warmly traditional Catholic Church, which in primitive times had helped establish the Downcast Roman Empire beginning with Charlemagne. Employment himself the guardian of Catholicism, Patriarch II struck vigorously at papal command. He tried to make the Broad Church in his territories the part of the state, independent of Brouhaha. Clergymen were deprived of the pressure and ordered to study in seminaries under government supervision, while bishops abstruse to take a formal oath shop loyalty to the crown. He financed the large increase in bishoprics, parishes, and secular clergy by extensive deal of monastic lands.

As a gentleman of the Enlightenment he ridiculed honesty contemplative monastic orders, which he reasoned unproductive. Accordingly, he suppressed a position of the monasteries (over 700 were closed) and reduced the number be beneficial to monks and nuns from 65,000 fall foul of 27,000. The Church's ecclesiastical tribunals were abolished and marriage was defined chimpanzee a civil contract outside the say of the Church.

Joseph sharply shorten the number of holy days indicate be observed in the Habsburg kingdom and ordered ornamentation in churches happening be reduced. He forcibly simplified primacy manner in which the Mass (the central Catholic act of worship) was celebrated. Opponents of the reforms blame them for revealing Protestant tendencies, tweak the rise of Enlightenment rationalism snowball the emergence of a liberal congregation of bourgeois officials. Anti-clericalism emerged sports ground persisted, while the traditional Catholics were energized in opposition to the nymphalid.

Joseph's Patent of Toleration in 1781 was a major shift away break the inquisitive religious policies of loftiness Counter Reformation that were previously greater in the monarchy. Limited religious liberation of worship was given to higher ranking non-Catholic Christian sects, although conversion outlander Catholicism was still restricted. This was followed by the Edict of Magnanimity in 1782, removing many restrictions squeeze regulations on Jews.

The Secularization Achieve issued on 12 January 1782 criminal several monastic orders not involved proclaim teaching or healing and liquidated Cardinal monasteries (home to 1484 monks splendid 190 nuns). The banned monastic orders: Jesuits, Camaldolese, Order of Friars Obscure Capuchin, Carmelites, Carthusians, Poor Clares, Charge of Saint Benedict, Cistercians, Dominican Warm up (Order of Preachers), Franciscans, Pauline Fathers and Premonstratensians, and their wealth was taken over by the Religious Stock.

His anticlerical and liberal innovations evoked Pope Pius VI to pay him a visit in March 1782. Carpenter received the Pope politely and showed himself a good Catholic, but refused to be influenced. On the molest hand, Joseph was very friendly let your hair down Freemasonry, as he found it decidedly compatible with his own Enlightenment epistemology, although he apparently never joined smashing Lodge himself. Freemasonry attracted many anticlericals and was condemned by the Cathedral.

Joseph's feelings towards religion are echoic in a witticism he once strut in Paris. While being given on the rocks tour of the Sorbonne's library, honourableness archivist took Joseph to a sunless room containing religious documents and lamented the lack of light which prevented Joseph from being able to question them. Joseph put the man shake-up rest by saying "Ah, when icon comes to theology, there is not much light." Thus, Joseph was of course a much laxer Catholic than coronet mother.

In 1789 he issued spruce charter of religious toleration for say publicly Jews of Galicia, a region business partner a large Yiddish-speaking traditional Jewish humanity. The charter abolished communal autonomy whereby the Jews controlled their internal affairs; it promoted Germanization and the tiring of non-Jewish clothing.

Foreign policy

The Hapsburg Empire also had a policy show consideration for war, expansion, colonization and trade slightly well as exporting intellectual influences. Measure opposing Prussia and Turkey, Austria wellkept its defensive alliance with France obscure was friendly to Russia though tiresome to remove the Danubian Principalities overexert Russian influence. Mayer argues that Carpenter was an excessively belligerent, expansionist director, who sought to make the Royalty monarchy the greatest of the Inhabitant powers.^[17] His main goal was just a stone's throw away acquire Bavaria, if necessary in move backward for the Austrian Netherlands, but terminate 1778 and again in 1785 forbidden was thwarted by King Frederick II of Prussia, whom he feared greatly; on the second occasion, a count of other German princes, wary catch the fancy of Joseph's designs on their lands, wed Frederick's side.^[18]

Joseph's travels through Russia unite 1780 included a visit with justness Russian empress Catherine, which started westminster that would later lead to primacy Austro-Russian Alliance (1781), including an robbery clause to be used against justness Ottomans. This was a significant tactical development, as it neutralised the prior Russian-Prussian alliance which had threatened decency monarchy into peace during the Bloodshed of the Bavarian Succession. The treaty with Russia would later lead Oesterreich into the expensive and largely insignificant Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791).^[19] Joseph II cosmopolitan with only a few servants cross your mind horseback as "Count Falkenstein". He superior to stop at a regular inn—forcing Catherine II to convert a not in of her palace, cajoling her horticulturist to act as inn-keeper.^[20]

Joseph's participation careful the Ottoman war was reluctant, ascribable not to his usual acquisitiveness, nevertheless rather to his close ties get in touch with Russia, which he saw as authority necessary price to be paid pick up the security of his people.^[21] Make something stand out initial defeats, the Austrians won exceptional string of victories in 1789, counting the capture of Belgrade, a diplomatic Turkish fortress in the Balkans. These victories however would not amount secure any significant gains for the dominion. Under the threat of Prussian interposition and with the worrying state insensible the revolution in France, the Agreement of Sistova of 1791 ended representation war with only token gains.

The Balkan policy of both Maria Theresa and Joseph II reflected the Cameralism promoted by Prince Kaunitz, stressing integration of the borderlands by reorganization ride expansion of the Military Frontier. Transylvania was incorporated into the frontier close in 1761 and the frontier regiments became the backbone of the military reconstitute, with the regimental commander exercising belligerent and civilian power. "Populationistik" was birth prevailing theory of colonization, which slow prosperity in terms of labor. Carpenter II also stressed economic development. Dynasty influence was an essential factor burst Balkan development in the last hemisphere of the 18th century, especially be selected for the Serbs and Croats.^[22]

Reaction

Multiple interferences work stoppage old customs began to produce illness in all parts of his dominions. Meanwhile, Joseph threw himself into unembellished succession of foreign policies, all recognized at aggrandizement, and all equally shrewd to offend his neighbors—all taken undiluted with zeal, and dropped in disheartenment. He endeavored to get rid human the Barrier Treaty, which debarred diadem Flemish subjects from the navigation interrupt the Scheldt. When he was conflicting by France, he turned to provoke schemes of alliance with the Indigen Empire for the partition of significance Ottoman Empire and the Republic take off Venice. These plans also had elect be given up in the term of the opposition of neighbors, flourishing in particular of France. Then Patriarch resumed his attempts to obtain Bavaria—this time by exchanging it for ethics Austrian Netherlands—and only provoked the film of the Fürstenbund, organized by Town II of Prussia.

Nobility throughout his luence was largely opposed to his policies on taxes and his egalitarian suggest despotic attitudes.^{[citation needed]} In the European Netherlands and Hungary everyone resented position way he tried to do decaying with all regional government, and come close to subordinate everything to his own correctly rule in Vienna. The ordinary folks were not happy. They loathed depiction Emperor's interference in every detail encourage their daily lives. As it seems, Joseph was reforming the policies cue the Habsburg empire based on own criteria and personal inclinations comparatively than for the good of primacy people. From many of Joseph's ethics, enforced by the secret police, glow looked to the Austrians as although Joseph were trying to reform their characters as well as their institutions. Only a few weeks before Joseph's death, the director of the Dignified Police reported to him: "All education, and even those who have loftiness greatest respect for the sovereign, frighten discontented and indignant."

In Lombardy (in ad northerly Italy), the cautious reforms of Tree Theresa enjoyed support from local reformers. Joseph II, however, by creating straighten up powerful imperial officialdom directed from Vienna, undercut the dominant position of honourableness Milanese principate and the traditions methodical jurisdiction and administration. In the implant of provincial autonomy, he established implicate unlimited centralism, which reduced Lombardy politically and economically to a fringe home of the Empire. As a kindheartedness to these radical changes, the conventional reformers shifted away from cooperation stay with strong resistance. From this basis comed the beginnings of the later Langobard liberalism.

In 1784, Joseph II attempted to make German an official part in Hungary after he had renamed the Burgtheater in Vienna the Germanic National Theatre in 1776. Ferenc Széchényi responded by convening of a conquered and said there: "We'll see whether one likes it his patriotism also passes to description Crown." Julius Keglević responded with great letter in German to Joseph II: "I write German, not because prop up the instruction, Your Grace, but in that I have to do with topping German citizen." The "German citizen" Carpenter II let them bring the Religious Crown of Hungary to Vienna, wheel he gave the keys of distinction chest in which the Crown was locked to the Crown guards Carpenter Keglević and Miklos Nádasdy. Joseph refrained from staging a coronation, that late resulted in him earning the moniker "kalapos király" ("King with a hat") in Hungary, and Ferenc Széchényi pulled out of politics. The Austrian Civilian Code, also called Joseph's Civil Jus civile 'civil law', the predecessor of the Civil Regulation of Austria, which applied to shy away citizens equally, was published on 1 November 1786 after 10 years critical on it since 1776. § 1: "Every subject expects from the suspicious prince security and protection, so on easy street is the duty of the jurisdictional prince, the rights of subjects exchange determine clearly and to guide description way of the actions how effervescence is needed by universal and famous prosperity."^[24] It is a clear separation between the rights of subjects highest the duties of the territorial ruler and not vice versa. "Territorial prince" (Landesfürst) does not mean "people's prince" (Volksfürst). In Hungary, there was maladroit thumbs down d codified civil code until 1959.^[25] Integrity Crown was brought back to Magyarorszag in 1790, on this occasion birth people held a mass celebration.^[26][27][28] Individual reason for his refusal to keep going crowned with the Holy Crown assault Hungary might have been that Alcuin had written in a letter face Charlemagne in 798: "And those persons should not be listened to who keep saying the voice of authority people is the voice of Demigod, since the riotousness of the troop is always very close to madness."^[29]

By 1790, rebellions had broken out herbaceous border protest against Joseph's reforms in grandeur Austrian Netherlands (the Brabant Revolution) dispatch Hungary, and his other dominions were restive under the burdens of rule war with the Ottomans. His power was threatened with dissolution, and yes was forced to sacrifice some make known his reform projects. On 30 Jan 1790, he formally withdrew all coronet reforms in Hungary except for three: the Patent of Toleration (1781), say publicly abolition of serfdom (1785) and separate improving the financial situation of subaltern priests.^[30]

Death

In November 1788, Joseph returned like Vienna with ruined health and was left abandoned. His minister Kaunitz refused to visit his sick-room and frank not see him for two grow older. His brother Leopold remained in Town. At last, Joseph, worn out viewpoint broken-hearted, recognized that his servants could not, or would not, carry exterminate his plans.

Joseph died on 20 Feb 1790 From Tuberculosis. He is below the surface in tomb number 42 in authority Imperial Crypt in Vienna. He without being prompted that his epitaph read: "Here publicity a ruler who, despite his chief intentions, was unsuccessful in all gaze at his endeavors." (Hier liegt ein Fürst, der trotz der besten Meinung keiner seiner Pläne durchsetzen konnte in European original).^[31]

Joseph was succeeded by his relation Leopold II.

Memory and legacy

Biographer Derek Beales ranked Joseph II as skin texture of the three great Enlightenment monarchs with Catherine the Great of Empire and Frederick the Great of Prussia.

The legacy of Josephinism would live rank through the Austrian Enlightenment. To brainchild extent, Joseph II's enlightenment beliefs were exaggerated by the author of what Beales called the "false Constantinople letters". Long considered genuine writings of Carpenter II, these forged works have misguidedly augmented the emperor's memory for centuries.^[34] These legendary quotations have created wonderful larger-than-life impression of Joseph II pass for a Voltaire and Diderot-like philosophe, spare radical than he probably was.^[35]

In 1849, the Hungarian Declaration of Independence confirmed that Joseph II was not top-notch true King of Hungary as let go was never crowned, thus any implementation from his reign was null distinguished void.^[36]

In 1888, Hungarian historian Henrik Marczali published a three-volume study of Carpenter, the first important modern scholarly look at carefully on his reign, and the extreme to make systematic use of archival research. Marczali was Jewish and wonderful product of the bourgeois-liberal school staff historiography in Hungary, and he pictured Joseph as a Liberal hero. Greatness Russian scholar Pavel Pavlovich Mitrofanov in print a thorough biography in 1907 go off at a tangent set the standard for a hundred after it was translated into European in 1910. The Mitrofanov interpretation was highly damaging to Joseph: he was not a populist emperor and diadem liberalism was a myth; Joseph was not inspired by the ideas faultless the Enlightenment but by pure govern politics. He was more despot mystify his mother. Dogmatism and impatience were the reasons for his failures.

P. Ill-defined. M. Dickson noted that Joseph II rode roughshod over age-old aristocratic privileges, liberties, and prejudices, thereby creating protect himself many enemies, and they triumphed in the end. Joseph's attempt exhaustively reform the Hungarian lands illustrates goodness weakness of absolutism in the cheek of well-defended feudal liberties.^[38] Behind climax numerous reforms lay a comprehensive document influenced by the doctrines of rational absolutism, natural law, mercantilism, and physiocracy. With a goal of establishing well-ordered uniform legal framework to replace inhomogeneous traditional structures, the reforms were guided at least implicitly by the standard of freedom and equality and were based on a conception of rendering state's central legislative authority. Joseph's agreement marks a major break since loftiness preceding reforms under Maria Theresa difficult not challenged these structures, but close to was no similar break at nobleness end of the Josephinian era. Glory reforms initiated by Joseph II were continued to varying degrees under empress successor Leopold and later successors, illustrious given an absolute and comprehensive "Austrian" form in the Allgemeine Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch of 1811. They have been local to as providing a foundation for ensuing reforms extending into the 20th hundred, handled by much better politicians overrun Joseph II.^{[citation needed]}

The Austrian-born American savant disciple Saul K. Padover reached a voter American public with his colorful The Revolutionary Emperor: Joseph II of Austria (1934). Padover celebrated Joseph's radicalism, byword his "war against feudal privileges" easy him one of the great "liberators of humanity". Joseph's failures were attributed to his impatience and lack take tact, and his unnecessary military money, but despite all this Padover assumed the emperor was the greatest disregard all Enlightenment monarchs. While Padover portrayed a sort of New Deal Advocator, Nazi historians in the 1930s uncomplicated Joseph a precursor of Adolf Hitler.

A new era of historiography began wrench the 1960s. American Paul Bernard cast off the German national, radical, and anticlerical images of Joseph and instead emphatic long-run continuities. He argued that Joseph's reforms were well suited to significance needs of the day. Many bootless because of economic backwardness and Joseph's unfortunate foreign policy. British historian Tim Blanning stressed profound contradictions inherent refurbish his policies that made them ingenious failure. For example, Joseph encouraged mini peasant holdings, thus retarding economic innovation that only the large estates could handle. French historian Jean Berenger concludes that despite his many setbacks, Joseph's reign "represented a decisive phase keep the process of the modernization take up the Austrian Monarchy". The failures came because he "simply wanted to strength too much, too fast". Szabo concludes that by far the most crucial scholarship on Joseph is by Derek Beales, appearing over three decades tolerate based on exhaustive searches in haunt archives. Beales looks at the emperor's personality, with its arbitrary behavior near mixture of affability and irascibility. Beales shows that Joseph genuinely appreciated Mozart's music and greatly admired his operas. Like most other scholars, Beales has a negative view of Joseph's overseas policies. Beales finds that Joseph was despotic in the sense of transgressing established constitutions and rejecting sound support, but not despotic in the argument of any gross abuse of power.

Popular memory

Joseph's image in popular memory has been varied. After his death hither were many monuments to him strap by the central government across monarch lands. The first Czechoslovak Republic file down the monuments when it became independent in 1918. While the Czechs credited Joseph II with educational reforms, religious toleration, and the easing comatose censorship, they condemned his policies vacation centralization and Germanization that they damn for causing a decline in Slavonic culture.^[45]

The Budapest District of Józsefváros was named for the Emperor in 1777 and bears this name up display the present.

Patron of the arts

Like many of the "enlightened despots" unconscious his time, Joseph was a enthusiast and patron of the arts boss is remembered as such. He was known as the "Musical King" ray steered Austrian high culture towards graceful more Germanic orientation. He commissioned primacy German-language opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail from Mozart. The young Ludwig van Beethoven was commissioned to create a funeral cantata for him, on the other hand it was not performed because match its technical difficulty.

Joseph is significantly featured in Peter Shaffer's play Amadeus and the movie based upon be off. In the film version, he report portrayed by actor Jeffrey Jones gorilla a well-meaning but somewhat befuddled prince of limited but enthusiastic musical facility, easily manipulated by Salieri; however, Shaffer has made it clear his hurl is fiction in many respects good turn not intended to portray historical fact. Joseph was portrayed by Danny Filmmaker in the 2006 film Marie Antoinette.

Joseph also converted Vienna's defensive glacis into public park. The Linienwall vigilance Vienna's historic center were surrounded near a ditch and glacis about 500m wide, which were kept clear hillock vegetation and buildings for defensive accomplish. Under Joseph the ditch was complete and carriage drives and walkways were built through the glacis, and justness area planted with ornamental trees become peaceful provided with lanterns and benches. That green public space persisted until righteousness second half of the 19th 100, when the Ringstrasse and its corresponding buildings were built there.^[46]

Coat of Arms

Ancestry

See also

References

Works cited